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3.1 Support for Institutional Development
of NGOs and Community Involvement:
Developing the DEF Network
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Edited by Jan Seffer & Jaromír Síbl
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................5
1 WHAT IS A WETLAND ......................................................................................................7
1.1 Wetland Definitions and Classifications ........................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Wetland Functions .......................................................................................................................................... 12
2. INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT .........................................................14
2.1 Current Issues in Water Management ............................................................................................................. 14
2.2 Characteristics of Effective Watershed Management ..................................................................................... 16
2.3 Why "Integrated" Management?..................................................................................................................... 18
2.4 Recommended Planning and Management Approach..................................................................................... 20
3 WETLAND MANAGEMENENT AND RESTORATION .............................................22
3.1 Water Management ......................................................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Water Regime.................................................................................................................................................. 22
3.3. Water Quality ................................................................................................................................................. 30
3.4 Drainage channel management ....................................................................................................................... 32
4 NUTRIENT AND TOXIC REMOVAL ............................................................................40
4.1 Mechanisms and Processes Involved in Nutrient Removal and Storage in Riverine Wetlands ...................... 40
4.2 Economic Valuation Of Nutrient Sink of Floodplain Meadows ..................................................................... 45
4.3 Toxic Pollution of Water................................................................................................................................. 58
5 CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................................................68
5.1 Restoration of Streams in the Agricultural Landscape (Sweden).................................................................... 68
5.2 Restoration of Streams and their Riparian Zones (South Jutland, Denmark).................................................. 77
5.3 Case study: Large-scale Restoration of Species-rich Meadows (Morava River, Slovakia) ............................ 86
5 NGOS' COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES IN THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN ........92
5.1 Components and Objectives of the Presentation ............................................................................................. 92
5.2 General Concepts Concerning Information Flow............................................................................................ 93
5.3 Communication Activities of E-NGOs ........................................................................................................... 95
5.4 NGO Communication Strategy ..................................................................................................................... 101
REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................103
ANNEX I. TEMPLATES.....................................................................................................105
3
4
Introduction
Introduction
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The training manual was developed in the framework of the UNDP/GEF Danube Regional
Project "Strengthening the Implementation capacities for Nutrient Reduction and
Transboundary Cooperation in the Danube River Basin", under the Project component 3.1:
Support for institutional development of NGOs and community involvement.
This training manual was compiled as an output of the "International Training on wetland
restoration and nutrient reduction" organized by Danube Environmental Forum in November
2002, in Vinicne, Slovakia. The training manual will serve as the basis for organizing
"National trainings on wetland restoration and nutrient reduction" which will be organized by
DEF National Focal Points in the spring of 2003 (DEF National trainings).
Following the Quality Guidelines for Training and Consultation Workshops, prepared by
Holger Nauheimer in 2002, the logistics of the DEF National Trainings was specified as
follows:
Main training objective:
To improve the knowledge and skills of NGOs in wetland restoration and nutrient reduction
in the Danube River Basin.. Furthermore, to help NGOs fulfil requirements set by the
Regional Environmental Centre (REC) for the National and Regional Small Grant Programme
under the UNDP/GEF Danube Regional Project.
Short term objectives (to be measured at the end of the workshop):
After completion of the DEF National training, participants will have gained knowledge
and skills in order to implement practical measures leading to restoration of wetlands
and the reduction of nutrients in natural ecosystems.
At the end of the DEF National training all participants will understand, the process,
criteria and deadlines of the REC Small Grants Program.
Medium term objectives (to be measured some time after the workshop):
Trained NGO representatives will develop and implement effective measures directly or
indirectly leading to wetland restoration or/and nutrient reduction.
Trained NGO representatives will prepare high quality project proposals, following the
instructions and criteria of the REC Small Grants Program and applying knowledge
gained during DEF National Training.
These are overall DEF objectives for the organization of national trainings. DEF National
trainings will be organized by DEF National Focal Points in 11 countries of the Danube River
Basin. The indicators for the identified objectives will be specified by each DEF National
Focal Point before the training, based on national priorities identified by the DEF National
training preparation team.
Target group for the training:
Non-governmental organizations in the country focused on the protection of natural
ecosystems and pollution reduction.
5
Introduction
Methodology:
Training workshop focused on enhancing human resources through active capacity building.
Trainings are guided by trainers, who have substantial knowledge, skills and/or methodology
compared to participants and possess certain training skills. The goal of the training workshop
is to develop human resources in wetland restoration and nutrient reduction.
Participation will include active discussion, input and exchange of information/experiences
among participants.
Training size greatly differs among countries. The estimated number of participants will be
between 15 and 50.
Training duration also differs among countries. The estimated number of training days will be
2-3.
The agenda will be provided to the participants together with the invitation. The agenda will
follow the structure of DEF International training (theoretical knowledge, case studies, and
examples of effective measures) but national priorities should be reflected in the presented
topics. The training agenda will include 2-4 hours of presentations and discussion about the
REC Small Grants Program. It is highly recommended that practical exercises and/or
excursions are included into the training agenda.
Each participant will be provided with a national training manual, which will follow the
structure of this document. National training manuals will be developed by the national
training preparation team and will include topics presented at the DEF National training in the
country. The content of the national training manual does not have to be the same as this
document,(ie: it should not copy all chapters), but it should reflect identified national
priorities.
Representative of the training preparation team will fill the Templates 1, 2, 3b before and
Template 8 after the training takes place (Annex I).
Evaluation of training will be done by each participant. An evaluation sheet to be translated
and handed out to the participants at the end of the training is provided in the Template 7b.
The evaluation sheets will be collected by each DEF National Focal Point and the English
summary of training evaluation will be attached to the final training report. The training
report will be provided to DEF Secretariat latest 2 weeks after the national training takes
place.
6
What is a Wetland
1 What is a Wetland
Jan Seffer
1.1 Wetland Definitions and Classifications
Ramsar Convention Article 1
For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water,
whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing,
fresh brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres.
Wetlands - areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at frequency and
duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances support a prevalence of
vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions (Lewis 1990)1.
Three main conditions for existence of wetland are included in this definition:
1. the substrate is flooded or saturated with water during vegetation season
2. presence of wetland plants - hydrophytes and hygrophytes
3. presence of hydric soils with anaerobic conditions
Functional definition of wetlands is defined as:
"heterogeneous but distinctive ecosystems in which special ecological, biogeochemical and
hydrological functions arise from the dominance and particular sources, chemistry and
periodicity of inundation or saturation by water. They occur in a wide range of landscapes and
may support permanent shallow (<2m) or temporary standing water. They have soils,
substrates and biota adapted to flooding and/or water-logging and associated conditions of
restricted aeration'.2
Inland wetlands are of a palustrine, riverine or lacustrine system type. This division is made
according to how the wetland is supplied with water. In the cases of riverine and lacustrine
systems, the wetlands are influenced by the water level of rivers and lakes. In the palustrine
system of wetlands, water is supplied by groundwater, rain, snow and during periods of
floods.
Palustrine system - is not bounded by deepwater habitats. Vegetation covers more than 50%
of the area and it has to contain the previously mentioned three characteristics.
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1 KUSLER, J. A. et KENTULA, M. E. (eds.), 1990: Wetland Creation and Restoration. The Status of the Science. Washington, D.C.,
Covelo, California.
2 Definition provided by Evaluwet. Evaluwet - European Valuation and Assessment tooLs supporting Wetland Ecosystem legislaTion - is a
research project supported by the European Commission under the Fifth Framework Programme and contributing to the implementation of
the Key Action "Sustainable Management and Quality of Water" within the Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development Contract n°:
EVK1-CT-2000-00070
7
What is a Wetland
Riverine system - is situated by channels with moving water, and also near deepwater
habitats. In some parts the average depth of the channel is at least 2 meters. Wetlands of
smaller channels, which do not fulfill this condition belong to the palustrine system.
Vegetation covers less than 50% of the area.
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It is necessary to distinguish
(Deep)Water system - permanently flooded lands lying below the deepwater boundary of
wetlands. Water habitats include environments where surface water is permanent and often
deep, so that water rather than air, is the principal medium within which the dominant
organisms live. The substrate is considered nonsoil because the water is too deep to support
8
What is a Wetland
emergent vegetation (Cowardin et al. 1979)3. The boundary lies at depth of 2 m below low
water because it represents the maximum depth to which emergent plants normally grow.
Further classification is according to vegetation (Tab 1). Formations are divided according to
the dominant live form of dominant plant species (tree, shrub, grasses, herbs and moss).
Vegetation types are according to dominant plant species (spruce - spruce bog, alder - fen
alder wood).
Most common are palustrine vegetation types, so we are concentrating on their characteristics.
Vegetation types of riverine and lacustrine systems connected with specific palustrine
vegetation types are added in the scheme on the inside cover page.
Besides this classification, other types of classification systems also exist. The most well
known system of classification is that as described by the Ramsar Convention. Unfortunately,
this classification is reflecting not very consistent definition of wetlands and its practical use
is very limited eg. for inventory purpose.
This classification system also considers wetlands, which contain deepwater habitats. If there
are some ponds, reservoirs and canals created by man we did not classify them as a specific
category, but we included them in the review if they follow the definition.
Tab 1. Classification of inland wetlands4 in Danube River Basin with links to Ramsar
Classification (Annex ).
Ramsar
System Formation
Vegetation type
Classification
wood
riparian alder wood
M,P,Xf
fen alder wood
Xf
spruce bog
Xp
birch and pine bog
Xp
tall-herb spruce wood
Xf
willow-poplar wood
P,Xf
oak-elm-ash wood
P,Xf
shrub
willow shrub
M,W
dwarf pine bog
W
Palustrine
grass-herb
tall-sedge
Tp,Ts
wet meadow and pasture
Sp,Ss,Ts,Va,4,9
tal-herb floodplain
reed swamp
Tp,Ts
aquatic vegetation
9
moss
bog
U
fen
U
spring
Y
ephemeral
bare bottom growth
Ts
3 COWARDIN, L. M., CARTER, V., GOLET, F. C. et LaROE, E. T., 1979: Classification of Wetlands and
Deepwater Habitats of the United States. Washington , D.C.
4 based on Seffer et al.1996. Wetlands for life. Daphne, Bratislava, 32p.
9
What is a Wetland
tree
with alders
L, M,Xf
w. willows and poplars
L, M,Xf
shrub
w. willows
L, M,W
Riverine
grass-herb
w. sedges
L, M
w. grasses and herbs
L, M,4
w. aquatic plants
L, M
ephemeral
bare bottom growth
L
tree
with alders
O,Xf
w. willows and poplars
O,Xf,1,2,6,7
shrub
w. willows
O,W,1,2,6,7
w. dwarf pines
O,W
Lacustrine
grass-herb
w. sedges
O
w. grasses and herbs
O,Q,R,Sp,Ss,1,2,6,7
w. aquatic plants
O,1,2,6,7
ephemeral
bare bottom growth
O,Q,R,Ts,1,2
Annex
Ramsar Classification System for Inland and Human Made Wetlands
The codes are based upon the Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type as approved by
Recommendation 4.7 and amended by Resolution VI.5 of the Conference of the Contracting
Parties. The categories listed herein are intended to provide only a very broad framework to
aid rapid identification of the main wetland habitats represented at each site.
Inland Wetlands
L -- Permanent inland deltas.
M -- Permanent rivers/streams/creeks; includes waterfalls.
N -- Seasonal/intermittent/irregular rivers/streams/creeks.
O -- Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes large oxbow lakes.
P -- Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes floodplain lakes.
Q -- Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline lakes.
R -- Seasonal/intermittent saline/brackish/alkaline lakes and flats.
Sp -- Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline marshes/pools.
Ss -- Seasonal/intermittent saline/brackish/alkaline marshes/pools.
Tp -- Permanent freshwater marshes/pools; ponds (below 8 ha), marshes and swamps on
inorganic soils; with emergent vegetation water-logged for at least most of the growing
season.
Ts -- Seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes/pools on inorganic soils; includes sloughs,
potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes.
U -- Non-forested peatlands; includes shrub or open bogs, swamps, fens.
Va -- Alpine wetlands; includes alpine meadows, temporary waters from snowmelt.
Vt -- Tundra wetlands; includes tundra pools, temporary waters from snowmelt.
W -- Shrub-dominated wetlands; shrub swamps, shrub-dominated freshwater marshes, shrub
carr, alder thicket on inorganic soils.
Xf -- Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; includes freshwater swamp forests, seasonally
flooded forests, wooded swamps on inorganic soils.
Xp -- Forested peatlands; peatswamp forests.
Y -- Freshwater springs; oases.
Zg -- Geothermal wetlands
Zk(b) Karst and other subterranean hydrological systems, inland
10
What is a Wetland
Note : "floodplain" is a broad term used to refer to one or more wetland types, which may
include examples from the R, Ss, Ts, W, Xf, Xp, or other wetland types. Some examples of
floodplain wetlands are seasonally inundated grassland (including natural wet meadows),
shrublands, woodlands and forests. Floodplain wetlands are not listed as a specific wetland
type herein.
Human-made wetlands
1 -- Aquaculture (e.g., fish/shrimp) ponds
2 -- Ponds; includes farm ponds, stock ponds, small tanks; (generally below 8 ha).
3 -- Irrigated land; includes irrigation channels and rice fields.
4 -- Seasonally flooded agricultural land (including intensively managed or grazed wet
meadow or pasture).
5 -- Salt exploitation sites; salt pans, salines, etc.
6 -- Water storage areas; reservoirs/barrages/dams/impoundments (generally over 8 ha).
7 -- Excavations; gravel/brick/clay pits; borrow pits, mining pools.
8 -- Wastewater treatment areas; sewage farms, settling ponds, oxidation basins, etc.
9 -- Canals and drainage channels, ditches.
Zk(c) Karst and other subterranean hydrological systems, human-made
11
What is a Wetland
1.2 Wetland Functions
Jan Seffer
Wetlands are very important for biodiversity conservation. The species richness of organisms
is caused by many different habitats, created in dependence of ground water level and the
duration of floods. Several centimetres is often the distinction between life and death for
many plant and animal species.
None of the species live in isolation, but are connected by many relationships with other
species of this ecosystem. The result is a complicated network of symbiotic relationships. If
one important species is eliminated from the network, this may result in dramatic effects to
the entire system. We are unable to predict what will happen to an ecosystem due to
interference and changes created by man.
Wetlands are a very important component in the cycling of nitrogen. Taken up into the
nutrient the dissolved nitrogen in the water passes through a wetland, much of it is captured
and transformed by microbes. Plants take up nitrogen as they grow and release nitrogen as
they decompose. Because nitrogen may be the most limiting nutrient for plant growth in
flooded soils, excess nitrogen can contribute to eutrophication or rapid plant growth. Nitrogen
can be omitted from a wetland with the water outflow. Because of the anaerobic conditions of
wetland soils, much of the nitrogen becomes a gas and escapes to the atmosphere.
Nitrates and other chemicals from fertilizers
Review of the most significant
decompose in wetlands and are retained from
wetland functions
entering the ground water. An increase of discharged
nutrients especially nitrogen and phosphorus
Biodiversity conservation
negatively impacts water quality by directly raising
· habitat for an enormous diversity
the level of nitrates in the groundwater and indirectly
of micro-organisms, plants and
by the process of eutrophication in surface waters.
animals
Nitrates are also a serious health concern when found
Environmental functions
in high concentration in drinking water.
· water quality control
Growing vegetation removes nutrients from the
· removal of nutrients from water
water, and if the vegetation is removed the net result
· purification of water from chemical
is a reduction of nutrients. The regularly mowed
and organic waste
meadows in the Morava River Floodplains are a
· removal of sediments
unique ecosystem not only for their high biodiversity
·
value, but also because they act like huge nutrient
biomass and oxygen production
sinks. After rough estimations we have predicted that
· water retention in the soil
290 tons of nitrogen and 30 tons of phosphorus are
Socio-economic functions
removed by hay annually, but the potential for this
· flood control
area is 480 tons and 50 tons respectively.
· erosion control
Wetlands also slow flood waters allowing sediments,
· water supply
nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals and other toxic
· wood, hay and reed production
metals to be trapped and absorbed into the soil.
· cattle and sheep grazing areas
Wetlands are globally considered to be the most
· fishing and hunting
productive ecosystems. Wetland vegetation is a very
· recreation
effective use of the suns energy. Plants use light
· education and research
through the process of photosynthesis for the
replication of cells and building of biomass. A result of this process is the release of oxygen
by the plant. This biomass then serves as food for numerous species of aquatic and terrestrial
animals and plants.
Under natural conditions wetlands protect the land against floods. They catch surges of
flooding water, and slow down running water. Captured water is then slowly released. In this
12
What is a Wetland
way wetlands help with flood control, because the flood peaks on the tributaries do not reach
the main stream at the same time. This function is very important, mainly in places of high
population densities. By regulations, straitening of rivers and decreasing of flooded areas by
the construction of dikes, the river is loosing its dynamic characteristics. We can compare this
state with the situation when we put on coat, which is too small for us. After the first awkward
movement, the coat will tear somewhere.
Wetlands are transitional areas between terrestrial and aquatic habitats, which protect the land
against erosion. Wetland vegetation can reduce bank erosion in different ways: root systems
which stabilise the bank, reduce the effect of flooding waters and slow down a stream by
friction. Mainly trees act as stabilisers for river banks.
Wetlands are very important for people as a water resource. They serve as water reservoirs
that are filled up when there is enough water and gradually let out when there is lack of water.
Consequently, they serve in the high production of wood, hay and reeds. All of which have
been used from historical times for traditional uses. Wetlands are also used as pastures, and
for fishing and hunting. Above all, lowland wetlands are very popular for visitors because of a
high diversity of different habitats and species.
13
Integrated Watershed Management
2. Integrated Watershed Management
Jaromír Síbl
2.1 Current Issues in Water Management
Water is one of our most precious natural resources. In moist, temperate regions, water is the
fundamental mechanism in chemical flux and cycling. In arid regions, access to water lies at
the heart of much conflict. Every living organism on this planet requires water in some form.
Water, therefore, regulates population growth, influences world health and living conditions,
and determines biodiversity.
For thousands of years people have tried to control the flow and quality of water. There are
documented water disputes of 4,500 years ago in the Mesopotamian cities of Lagash and
Umma. Engineering works related to military and urban development, drainage works,
irrigation projects, and water diversions can all be documented over thousands of years. Even
today the presence or absence of the water is critical in determining the uses to which the land
can be put.
Yet despite this long experience in water use and water management, humans have failed to
manage water well. Through the nineteenth century and much of the twentieth century,
economic development in many countries was rapid, and often at the expense of sound water
management. Frequently, optimism about the applications of technology whether dam
building, wastewater treatment, or irrigation measures vastly exceeded concerns or even
interest in their environmental shortcomings. Pollution was viewed as the inevitable
consequence of development, the price that must be paid if economic progress was to be
achieved.
In March 1977, UN sponsored a conference on water at Mar del Plata, Argentina. This
conference is viewed as a landmark event in water management. The conference resulted in
an ,,action plan", including recommendations targeted at meeting the goal of safe drinking
water and sanitation for all human settlements by 1990. The conference recommendations for
water management policy can be summarised as follows:
1. Each country should formulate and keep under review a general statement of policy
relating to the use, management, and conservation of water as a framework for planning
and implementation. National development plans and policies should specify the main
objectives of water-use policy, which in turn should be translated into guidelines,
strategies, and programs.
2. Institutional arrangements adopted by each country should ensure that the development
and management of water resources take place within the context of national planning, and
that there be real coordination among all bodies responsible for the investigation,
development, and management of water resources.
3. Each country should examine and keep under review existing legislative and
administrative structures concerning water management and, where appropriate, should
enact comprehensive legislation for a coordinated
approach to water planning. It may
be desirable that provisions concerning water resources management, conservation, and
protection against pollution be combined in a unitary legal instrument. Legislation should
define the rules of public ownership of water and of large water engineering works, as well
as the provisions governing land ownership problems and any litigation that may result
from them. This legislation should be flexible enough to accommodate future changes in
priorities and perspectives.
4. Countries should make necessary efforts to adopt measures for obtaining effective
participation in the planning and decision-making process involving users and public
14
Integrated Watershed Management
authorities. This participation can constructively influence choices between alternative
plans and policies. If necessary, legislation should provide for such participation as an
integral part of the planning, programming, implementation, and evaluation process.
This ,,action plan" emphasizes a strong, centralized, and national commitment to water
management. Yet even 25 years later, the problems it was intended to solve remain
significant. The significance of Mar del Plata lies in fact that it recognized, formally and
globally, that existing water management policy was failing to reach its goals. The
disappointing progress in the years since the conference has encouraged many authors re-
examine the Mar del Plata action plan and the reasons for continued inaction. The main
reasons why the responsible governmental institutions have not succeeded to reach the
careful, strategic water management, can be summarised as follows:
1. The dominance of unregulated water uses
2. Inadequate and ineffective water resources management
3. A high degree of inefficiency in many water-related public utilities
4. A failure to retain trained staff of all types
5. Overcentralization and bureaucratization of decision-making authority
6. Inappropriate and inadequate water legislation
In the wide debate leading up to the Rio meeting, a number of authors analyzed the forces
affecting water management. There is remarkable consensus among these authors who - come
from countries around the world - about the current issues confronted by water managers
(Viessmann 1990; Goodman and Edwards 1992; Nickum and Easter 1990):
Water Availability, Requirements, and Use
· Protection of aquatic and wetland habitat
· Management of extreme events (droughts, floods, etc.). Excessive extractions from
surface and ground waters
· Global climate change
· Safe drinking water supply ·
· Waterborne commerce
Water Quality
· Coastal and ocean water quality
· Lake and reservoir protection and restoration
· Water quality protection, including effective enforcement of legislation · Management
of point- and nonpoint-source pollution
· Impacts on land/water/air relationships
· Health risks
Water Management and Institutions
· Coordination and consistency
· Capturing a regional perspective
· The respective roles of federal and state/provincial agencies · The respective roles of
projects and programs
· The economic development philosophy that should guide planning · Financing and
cost sharing
· Information and education
15
Integrated Watershed Management
· Appropriate levels of regulation and deregulation
· Water rights and permits
· Infrastructure
· Population growth
· Water resources planning, including
- Consideration of the watershed as an integrated system
- Planning as a foundation for, not a reaction to, decision making
- Establishment of dynamic planning processes incorporating periodic review and redirection
- Sustainability of projects beyond construction and early operation
- A more interactive interface between planners and the public
- Identification of sources of conflict as an integral part of planning
- Fairness, equity, and reciprocity between affected parties
There is a marked trend from the early 1980s to the present time in several aspects of water
management. Lee (1992) suggests that these trends may derive from shifts in economic
forces, from aggressive economic growth in the early period to more fragmented, less
successful growth in recent years. Certainly, a global economic recession through the early to
mid-1990s has made governments more cost conscious and businesses more willing to
evaluate the impacts of their actions in advance of implementation. The 1980s saw significant
growth in public concerns about the environment, and these have not abated even in the face
of economic downturns. The trends that can be observed include:
l. A move from end-of pipe (reactive) pollution control measures toward pollution prevention.
2. Increasing concern about chronic effects and "invisible" threats for instance, to human
health as compared with acute effects and visible problems.
3. Increasing awareness that point-source controls are generally well in hand, and that urban
and agricultural nonpoint sources of pollution are now major contributors to surface and
groundwater impairment.
4. A shift from local action (e.g., abatement of a single point source) to global management
strategies (e.g., the Rio Convention on Biodiversity). This trend is also reflected in the
growing consensus about the value of watershed management, as compared with management
by political boundaries such as those of municipalities.
5. Growing mistrust of, or perhaps understanding of the limits of, technology, and increased
reliance on education and extension activities to change consumer behavior.
6. Increasing consensus that the user or exploiter of resources should pay for any damage
done by that use: the "user pay" or "polluter pay" principle.
These principles are inherent in an effective integrated water management strategy.
2.2 Characteristics of Effective Watershed Management
Generally speaking, water management can be considered effective when it:
l. Allows an adequate supply of water that is sustainable over many years
2. Maintains water quality at levels that meet government standards and other societal water
quality objectives
3. Allows sustainable economic development over the short and long term
We may, in fact, have reached a point perhaps signaled by recent environmental disasters like
Love Canal and the Cuyahoga River and by water supply crises in many communities at
which it is clear that future water use must be sustainable or development in some regions will
16
Integrated Watershed Management
halt. Sustainability implies closer cooperation between water users than has typically been
experienced in the past. It also implies consideration of the needs of the community, not just
the individual a difficult proposition for many water users.
Goodman and Edwards (1992) state that the in this context word plan can mean any one of
the following:
· A single-purpose, single-unit plan to serve a specific need, such as a demand for water
or abatement of a water-related problem
· A multipurpose and multiproject plan
· A regional plan for water resources development, preservation, or enhancement,
staged over a period of time with one or more planning horizons
· A national plan for water resources development, preservation, or enhancement
Planning may proceed in many ways. Bishop (1970) notes that clear goals may be set or a
process may simply proceed without goals. One agency may lead and control the process,
perhaps even forbidding participation by other groups or agencies. Or the process may be
clearly a multiparty and multiperspective one, with community consensus established at every
step. Some planning processes consist of a rigid schedule of meetings, formally chaired and
run; others employ a flexible workshop or "kitchen table" approach in which discussion is
open and unstructured. There are advantages and disadvantages to each method, but the point
that must be stressed is that the choice of a planning process is often highly context-
dependent; that is, its success will depend very much on the characteristics of the planning
area, the water management issues in the area, and the interests and needs of the community
of water users. It is increasingly clear, however, that unilateral planning processes that seek to
exclude the public will fail if not in the planning stage, then in implementation. The rapid rise
of public interest in, and knowledge about, environmental issues through .the 1980s has
created a climate in which public participation is expected and, indeed, required in almost
every planning situation.
Schramm (1980) offers the following general guidelines for successful river basin planning:
l. The institutional framework for the project must allow consideration of a wide range of
alternatives to solve observed problems, including those that may be outside the specific
responsibilities of the planning bodies.
2. The planning agencies must have the expertise needed for multiple-objective planning and
evaluation procedures, especially in economic, social, and environmental areas.
3. The institutional framework must facilitate adaptation of the plan to meet changing
national, regional, and local priorities.
4. The institutional framework must seek representation of all parties affected by the specific
development plans and management.
5. The institutional framework must reward initiative and innovation among the members of
the technical team and within cooperating agencies.
6. The technical team must be sufficiently free from day-to-day responsibilities so that they
can concentrate on long-range planning and anticipation of future problems.
7. The institutions must.have the capacity for learning and improving over time, including
sufficient contmuity over time and the ability to evaluate past programs.
8. There must be sufficient authority within the institutional framework to enforce conformity
of execution with construction and operating plans.
9. The institutional framework must be capable of guaranteeing an acceptable minimum level
of professional performance by the technical team.
10. The plan implementation stage must include provisions for the timely and qualitatively
and quantitatively sufficient supply of needed services by other agencies, as well as
17
Integrated Watershed Management
provisions to assure continued functioning i.e., operation, repair, and maintenance of the
facilities and services provided.
Schramm emphasizes the need for coordination and cooperation at local, regional, and
national levels, noting that:
"Planning and plan implementation do not proceed in a rarified vacuum derived from lofty,
immutable principles that are a law unto themselves. Planning is done for people and people
have different and often competing wants, desires, and hopes; political institutions should be
designed to meet those wants. One of the best ways to condemn planning efforts to oblivion or
failure is to turn the task over to a self-contained, isolated team of experts who fail to
communicate with one another, the people their plans are to serve, and those with political,
decision making authority. Within this dynamic, competing world of human wants and values
there is no ultimate reality or single-dimensioned optimum that can be determined by
scientific methods alone."
2.3 Why "Integrated" Management?
The idea of trans-media environmental management management using the "ecosystem"
concept is a relatively new one. In large part, it was born of experience showing that single-
medium or single-source management was not successful in meeting short- or long-term
goals. Until the mid-1970s, for instance, almost all pollution control effort was directed at
controlling point sources like sewage treatment plants and industrial discharges. The
International Joint Commission's Pollution from Land Use Activities Reference Group
(PLUARG) (PLUARG 1983) examined the reasons that phosphorus-reduction efforts in the
Great Lakes Basin had stalled. Its research showed that remediation of the lakes would
require integrated management plans for both point and nonpoint sources throughout the
entire Great Lakes Basin. In some areas, point-source controls would be most cost-effective;
in others, the focus would have to be on nonpointsource controls. Without the overview
provided by an integrated strategy, costly management efforts would continue to fail.
Sometimes water management efforts have been unsuccessful because they have focused on a
single medium (water) rather than on other environmental components such as sediment, air,
or biological tissue. Mercury poisoning at Minamata, Japan, and the Wabigoon-English River
system, northwestern Ontario, Canada, are excellent examples. In each case, an industrial
facility had discharged large volumes of wastewater containing inorganic mercury into
receiving waters. In each case the inorganic mercury (which is relatively nontoxic to humans
and other organisms) was converted in the water column and sediments to methyl mercury,
which is highly bioaccumulative and persistent in body tissues. The methyl mercury was
readily taken up by invertebrates in the waters, which in turn were eaten by larger species
such as fish, and these larger animals were consumed by humans. The humans, at the top of
this particular food chain, received concentrated doses of methyl mercury, which accumulated
in their own body tissues, causing a wide range of nervous system impacts. Subsequent
abatement efforts aimed at eliminating mercury-using technologies in the Wabigoon facility
(a pulp and paper mill) were successful. Nevertheless, more than 20 years after the technology
change, mercury continues to be released into the water from river and reservoir sediments
and, possibly, from residual deposits within the mill. Consideration only of effluent quality
from the mill might suggest that the problem was "solved" 20 years ago; in fact, methyl
mercury continues to cycle through the Wabigoon-English River system as a result of trans-
media environmental phenomena.
Very often, water management strategies have failed because they neglected to incorporate
the full range of values and perspectives present among water users or agencies with an
interest in water management. Wilkes (1975) noted that the provision of adequate water
18
Integrated Watershed Management
supplies in the Rhine River watershed is hampered because different agencies are responsible
for water supply and for water quality, and the two are not always effectively coordinated.
Wilkes also observed that watershed management requires the involvement of regional, state,
national, and international agencies a measure that was unnecessary at the level of local water
management and pollution control. The transition from local to watershed management can be
difficult, because interested agencies may not have the necessary authority to take on new
management roles, may encounter varying political influences, or may simply not work very
well together in managing water resources. In multilingual countries or watersheds, or in less
developed countries where external agencies like the World Bank may be involved in
planning initiatives, cooperation across agencies and disciplines may be more difficult still.
"Integrated" watershed management, although a strategy that is increasingly advocated in the
literature, is therefore still a relatively new concept. McDonald and Kay (1988) observe that
there have been "few real attempts to provide integrated management information and even
fewer evaluative studies of the policy and management of integration within the water
resources field." More and more agencies are now esta.blishing administrative frameworks
that permit and even encourage management of water on a watershed basis. Less frequently
are water management activities integrated with other resource management activities
affecting or affected by water. Heathcote (1993) notes that these may include, at minimum,
the intensity and nature of agricultural activities, forestry, and commercial fisheries. Although
integration at the watershed level is increasingly possible, integration at larger scales is, in the
words of McDonald and Kay (1988), "conspicuously absent," although there are clear
advantages to integrated water management at the international scale (especially in
international river basins) and even at the global scale.
In the mid-1980s, the Canadian federal government established a formal inquiry on federal
water policy, in response to a growing awareness that Canadian water resources were
potentially at risk of overuse and underprotection. The inquiry called for "visionary policies"
for the management of water resources in Canada (Pearse et al. 1985).
The inquiry drew attention to rising water consumption rates in Canada, conflicting water
uses in many areas, and deteriorating water quality, especially in the heavily populated
Canada-U.S. border region. Throughout their reports, the inquiry panel stressed the need for
caution and prevention, rather than careless use and reaction. Among their recommendations
were several relating to the administrative structures of water management and the need for
what they termed "comprehensive management." In particular, they called for (Pearse et al.
1985):
· A watershed plan sufficiently comprehensive to take into account all uses of the water
system and other activities that affect water flow and quality .
· Information about the watershed's full hydrological regime
· An analytical system, or model, capable of revealing the full range of impacts that
would be produced by particular uses and developments in the watershed
· Specified management objectives for the watershed, with criteria for assessing
management alternatives in an objective and unbiased way
· Participation of all relevant regulatory agencies
· Provisions for public participation in determining objectives and in management
decisions
These recommendations are particularly notable because they come from a seasoned
group of experts in a country that has long considered itself to have infinite water resources.
In the decade following the release of the inquiry's report, many of the panel's admonitions
about excessive water use and deteriorating water quality have been proven correct, and the
need for integrated watershed management is now seen as urgent. In less-water-rich countries,
19
Integrated Watershed Management
including the United States and many European countries, population density and a limited
resource base make integrated watershed management essential for sustainable water use. As
global consensus about the need for integrated management grows, it may now be social and
economic forces, rather than technical considerations, that determine the success of an
integrated watershed planning effort.
2.4 Recommended Planning and Management Approach
From the social and political perspective, the water management planning is a process of
achieving social change. In that sense, it is a consensus-building process, not a
unidimensional scientific exercise. Most of all, the watershed management plan must reflect
the current societal consensus about the value of water as a resource, about responsibilities
and social attitudes, and about the community´s vision of an ideal watershed state. Integrated
watershed management is, therefore, a journey, not a destination.
The development and implementation of workable solutions is not a process that has a single
correct outcome. Rather, it is an ongoing process of dialogue with the community, learning
about needs, teaching about options, and building consensus about an ideal watershed
condition and the best way to get there. The central feature of this process is choice: humans
use and affect water resources and have many choices available as to how and when that use
occurs. Integrated watershed planning means developing a social consensus about best
choices.
The general recommendations for the sound watershed management planning can be
summarised as follows (Heathcote, 1998):
1. Develop an understanding of watershed components and processssses, and of water
uses, water users, and their needs
2. Identify and rank problems to be solved, or beneficial uses to be restored
3. Set clear and specific goals
4. Develop a set of planning constraints and decision criteria, including any weights that
may be assigned to criteria
5. Identify an appropriate method of comparing management alternatives
6. Develop a list of management options
7. Eliminate options that are not feasible because of time, cost, space or other constraints
8. Test the effectiveness of remaining feasible options
9. Determine the economic impacts and legal implications of the various feasible
management options and their environmental impacts
10. Develop several good management strategies, each encompassing one or more
options, for the consideration of decision makers
11. Develop clear and comprehensive implementation procedures for the plan that is
preferred by decision makers
Planners ussualy find it helpful to divide the planning process into these discrete steps. In
reality, however, the planning process is dynamic and continuous. Several tasks or steps may
be under way simultaneously. Planning direction may change dramatically if new information
comes to light, if political forces change dramatically, or if community consensus is
redirected for other reasons. Above all, integrated watershed planning and management must
be responsive and adaptive to changing conditions.
Heathcote (1998) presents some principal elements of a successful integrated watershed
management. In summary, these are:
1. Adequate expertise for multiple-objective planning and evaluation procedures, especially in
economic, social and environmental areas
20
Integrated Watershed Management
2. Adequate resources of time and money for planning and implementation
3. Consideration of a wide range of alternatives to solve observed problems
4. A flexible, adaptable plan, reviewed and amended at regular intervals
5. Representation of all parties affected by the plan and its implementation
6. Sufficient authority to enforce conformity of execution with construction and operating
plans
Sustainable management of water resources requires water users to make conscious choices
that may sometimes reduce personal benefits in favour of community or intergenerational
benefits. There is growing consensus among different stakeholders that those choices cannot
be made solely on the basis of scientific evidence. Indeed, the science is not very clear, or
may be contradictory, on key questions affecting water management. In addition to scientific
evidence, sustainable watershed management requires community understanding and support,
which in turn will generate political will and, thus, economic and human resources to make
changes. Although those resources are now scarcer than they have been for many decades,
public awareness of and concern about water resources issues are now higher than ever
before. Integrated watershed management will therefore depend on the formation of
partnerships between governments and the public, across disciplines and international
borders, and among water users with different interests and values. This is a huge challenge,
but one for which the payoff will be sustainable management of water resources for our own
and future generations.
21
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
3 Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Compiled by Jaromír Síbl
3.1 Water Management
The conservation interest of wetlands and the ability to manage them effectively are
influenced by the physical and chemical characteristics of the water and soil. Two aspects of
water management are of particular importance: water regime and water quality. The first
section looks at the problems of water availability on sites and how to control and manipulate
water levels. The second examines the effects of water quality and measures that can be taken
to improve it when problems occur. Table 1 outlines the factors, which should be considered
before undertaking any water management.
Ideally, hydrological management should meet the water requirements of target species and
communities. Where species' requirements are not fully known, it may be possible to mimic
the hydrological regimes of other, similar sites which support high-quality wet grassland, or
to reinstate historical regimes which supported it in the past. It cannot be stressed enough,
however, that where reinstatement is required, wholesale and rapid change of hydrological
and grazing regimes is not advisable.
Considerations for water management
Water-table and water level requirements (ie regime)
- different community / species needs
Water supply
- quantity available
- availability at key periods
- surety of supply (balance with needs of other users)
Water quality
~ soil type and sediments
~ salinity
~ plant nutrients (eutrophication)
~ chemical pollutants
Water management
~ distribution network infrastructure
~ condition of existing infrastructure
~ need for new structures (drainage channels, bunds, grips, etc)
~ maintenance needs (sluices, pumps, drainage channels, grips, drains)
Legal considerations
~ access to external supplies
~ modification of drainage infrastructure
~ modifications to existing hydrological regime
3.2 Water Regime
Water regime describes the combination of water-table depth, the length of time that depth is
maintained and at what time of year. The water regime of a wetland may be influenced by
environmental factors and by management.
22
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
These include:
environmental factors such as:
- catchment area
- rainfall
-· evapotranspiration surface flows
- soil type
- topography
- groundwater flows.
management factors such as:
- other water demands in catchment
- drainage infrastructure on site.
The extent to which regimes should and can be managed varies between sites as a result of
seasonal and geographical variation, existing drainage infrastructure on the site and adjacent
land use (e.g. spray-irrigated agricultural land). Activities outside a site's boundaries may also
affect proposed management and should be evaluated. This section examines factors
influencing water supply and distribution on wetlands in turn. Methods for water control are
then examined.
Water supply
Adequate water supply is essential to enable enhanced management and restoration of
wetland habitats. Water supply for a site is influenced by climatic conditions (i.e. rainfall and
evapotranspiration), which vary throughout the continent. Sites may be dependent on surface
water (eg river flows) or groundwater supplies; however, in , many areas these have become
increasingly limited, especially where rainfall is low or where there are other competing
demands (eg abstraction for spray-irrigation or public water supply). Modification of rivers
for flood control has altered natural flooding regimes and has in many areas resulted in a
general lowering of watertables. Abstraction from rivers and groundwater for domestic,
agricultural and industrial use has exacerbated water supply problems in many areas.
The extent to which supply can be managed will vary between sites, and the following factors
should be considered:
- seasonal
variations
-
water source (inputs - eg river, groundwater and rainfall)
-
access to supply (competing demands)
-
losses from site (eg seepage and abstraction).
Natural seasonal variations of water supply should be taken into account when determining
proposals for enhanced management and restoration. Evapotranspiration will typically be
highest in June, July and August when water levels will naturally be at their lowest. Water
availability for sites can be calculated and should be examined in conjunction with other
water demands to see whether the site is capable of sustaining wetland where creation or
restoration options are being considered.
In some areas agriculture is now a major user. Shortages are particularly common in the
summer months, when evapotranspiration rates are high and supplies are limited. Shortages as
a result of abstraction from main rivers could potentially be alleviated by providing onsite
storage of winter water. Winter water is often available in excess, particularly on washlands
or on areas which are natural sinks for water and could be retained to maintain water-tables in
summer.
The easiest way to store this water may appear to be on the wetland itself during the spring,
using bunds. It must be borne in mind, however, that this can have a negative impact on the
species diversity of both the grassland flora and the invertebrate community where water is
23
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
stored. Holding water at high levels on grassland during spring creates very stressful
conditions for grass swards and extensive grass kills may result due to a lack of oxygen in the
soil. Where wet grassland conservation is the objective, water should be stored in reservoirs
or on areas of swamp vegetation or reedbed.
The many pressures on limited water supplies can make it difficult to meet conservation
needs. Water Level Management Plans (WLMPs) are one way of attempting to ensure that
environmental requirements are met. WLMPs can help to resolve potentially conflicting
interests. There is, however, some concern as to how far WLMPs can deal with water supply
problems owing to water abstraction. It is essential that action should be taken to integrate
water abstraction issues into WLMPs where appropriate. Addressing shortages arising as a
result of abstraction is a common problem.
Water distribution
Water distribution or movement at a site is influenced by:
- topography
- surface flows (eg in drainage channels)
- regional and local groundwater flows
- soil type.
Topography
Natural variations in topography can provide a variety of wetness regimes in an area.
Topography affects plant community composition because of its influence on water-table
levels. Localised depressions often provide wetter ,,islands" which typically contain
inundation grassland but which may also support swamp or sedge-bed communities. Higher
areas may support communities characteristic of drier soils. Small-scale variations in micro-
topography or soil structure may produce very different water regimes in directly adjacent
points, as in ridge and furrow grassland.
Surface flows
Controlled distribution of water and the regulation of water levels is much easier on sites with
a well developed water distribution network. Paradoxically, this is more likely on sites which
have been intensively managed in the past. Systems of water-filled drainage channels can be
used to both drain or irrigate land, depending on the position of the soil water-table relative to
drainage channel water levels.
In lowland areas, where the land is essentially flat, hydraulic gradients within the system are
often almost zero. Where there is gravity-feed from surrounding higher ground, drainage
channel water levels can be controlled simply by setting levels at the outlet, for example by
using sluices. It is advantageous to create a terraced irrigation system where water flows from
one hydrological unit to another. Where there is no natural supply from surrounding high
ground or from groundwater recharge, it will be necessary to import water to meet
evaporative demand, particularly in the summer. This may require the manipulation of inlet
sluices, for example to let water onto the site from adjacent carrier channels, or even pumping
.
Groundwater
Knowledge of groundwater levels and gradients (direction of flow is usually down a valley or
towards a river) can be very valuable when creating new wetland. However, it can be very
24
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
difficult to make accurate predictions and the advice of a hydrologist or hydrogeologist
should be sought.
Soil types and their effect on in-field water levels
Soi1 type and structure influence the ability to manage water levels on a site. It is
generally assumed that clay/silt soils depend on surface flooding to maintain wetness and
wildlife interest, whereas water-table levels in peat soils can be influenced by the lateral
(sideways) movement of water (eg to and from ditches). However, this is a generalisation and
should be treated with extreme caution. Soil structure can be the overriding factor controlling
water movement in soils. Soil type and structure influence the ability of the soil to hold water
(and hence influence plant growth and soil penetrability) and also the degree of water
movement through the soil.
Water flow or permeability (which can be measured in terms of hydraulic conductivity
in metres per day) is affected by particle size and structure. The flow rate through a sandy soil
(with large pore spaces) is greater than in an unstructured clay soil. A clay soil with a large
block (cube-like) or columnar structure is less permeable than a clay soil with a small
granular or crumb-like structure. Peat soils generally have higher hydraulic conductivity
enabling faster lateral water movement. These properties have major implications for how a
manager can control or manipulate water levels on a site.
On peat soils (which have high hydraulic conductivity) high drainage channel water
levels can be used to keep field water levels high. Conversely low drainage channel levels
result in drainage. It should be noted that there is little influence beyond 40/50 m from the
drainage channel edge. The use of drainage channels for sub-surface irrigation (raising water
levels) of field centres is considered later in this section.
Peat soils which have been maintained wet and uncompacted have a conductivity of
about 0.7-2.0 m/day. However, desiccation or compaction by heavy machinery or
overburdens of other soils can reduce this. Dry peat can actually repel water and, in the 17th
century, was used to line and provide the essential seal for some of the fen drainage channels.
Re-wetting dry peat is extremely difficult. The point at which drained peat repels water is not
known, nor are these physical processes completely understood. An occasional summer
drawdown or drought may not damage the ability of peat to absorb water again, whereas
prolonged draw-down may have irreversible effects. It is advisable to seek specialist
hydrological/soils advice for sites with desiccated peat soils. Actual losses of soil through
mineralisation at the surface are also likely with desiccated peats.
In contrast to sites with peat soils, water levels in drainage channels on sites with
poorly structured clay and alluvial soils, have little influence over soil water-tables in field
centres. This is because of their low hydraulic conductivity. Surface inundation is therefore
often the only method of maintaining soil wetness. These poorly structured clay soils also
have a low drainable porosity (a measure of the volume of water which will drain from a
saturated soil under gravity). It is measured as a percentage and ranges from 0.5-5.0% for
clays and from 15-35% for peats (Smedema and Rycroft 1983). It can be used, when fields
are saturated, to estimate the amount of water required to saturate the soil before flooding
occurs. Clays absorb less water before they become saturated than do peats.
Compacted clay soils can also form hard surface pans which prevent movement of
water to the lower soil profile. Such pans are common on clay soils, on sites which have been
heavily winter-grazed. On such sites, it may be necessary to develop different approaches to
soil management; which can be used to assist in re-wetting. Site managers often resort to
winter flooding, using natural topographic variation to maintain wet hollows during the
summer. It is worth noting that the deposition of dredged soil on drainage channel banks can
elevate the areas adjacent to drainage channels and make them surprisingly dry.
25
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Water level control
Water levels on a wet grassland site are controlled by the rate at which water enters and
leaves. Although influenced by natural factors, levels can be managed using:
- bunds, dams or sluices
- winter water storage
- pumps
- surface irrigation
- sub-surface irrigation.
Bunds
Where water is available only during the winter, it may be possible to retain it by constructing
levees or bunds (low earth banks keyed into the substrate). These permit water to be stored
during the winter to counter summer deficits, create permanent lagoons and also protect areas
from the effects of flooding (Armstrong et al 1995).
Bund construction follows the same general principles as dam construction but is less
complicated and relatively cheap. At Berney Marshes (UK), low bunds with a top width of 75
cm were created at a rate of 25 m per day using a tractor mounted McConnel PA8 digger-arm.
Using a Hymac increased the rate to 80 m per day, at a cost of about 1.50 pounds/m.
Bunds should be set well back from the edges of drainage channels to prevent slumping and
reduce seepage. Mower friendly profiles are advisable as bunds are often invaded by rank
vegetation such as thistles.
Dams
Dams can be constructed in drainage channels to retain water in, and isolate, hydrological
units. Dividing areas of wetland into smaller hydrological units using dams enables
independent control of water levels, for example allowing rotational flooding in winter.
However, flows of water and consequently the movement of fauna around a site may be
inhibited. Movement of water through and around such systems is therefore important to
prevent stagnation, build up of nutrients and to allow species access to all parts of the system.
Dam construction is easier in areas with loamy or clay soils. Clay and silt dams can
effectively be used across drainage channels up to about 5 m wide. Peat will only make
satisfactory dams if well compacted and even then the effective width is less. In general, the
basal width of a dam should be five times its height. The top of the dam should be level and at
least 50 cm above the normal water level. Table 2 outlines the principles, which should be
adopted when constructing dams.
Dam construction is likely to take up to half a day with a tractor-mounted hydraulic digger-
arm and cost from 40 to 200 pounds per unit, depending on size. Diggers or Hymacs
accomplish the task more efficiently and cost-effectively but are rarely available inhouse and
have to be contracted. Additional costs will be incurred in areas grazed by livestock, as it will
be necessary to fence the dam against trampling and subsequent erosion.
26
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Principles to be adopted when building dams
· Construct during the late summer when water levels are lower and rainfall less likely.
· Use temporary dams to block drainage channels on both sides and pump dry before
constructing the dam itself. Temporary coffer dams can be constructed from double
rows of sandbags or wooden boards with a clay infill.
· Remove topsoil and scarify the sub-soil where the dam is to be built, to enhance keying
and minimize seepage.
· Build the dam up slowly, eg in 15 cm layers and then compact. Allow extra material for
settling: 10% for mechanical compaction and 20% for compaction by foot. Peat may
settle up to twice as much as silt.
· Topsoil can be replaced above the normal water level and sown with a proprietary grass
mix. This stabilizes the surface and discourages deeper rooting plants. Creeping bent
and rough meadow-grass are ideal (ensure seeds are of known provenance).
Sluices
Sluices can perform the same function as dams, but are designed to permit controlled through-
flow so that water levels in drainage channels can be regulated. There are four main types:
flexi-pipe, dropboard, lif ting-gate and tilting-weir. Different types of sluices are described
below:
- Flexi-pipe sluices consist of flexible ribbed plastic pipe about 25 cm in diameter (pipes
greater than 35 cm in diameter are difficult to adjust). They are usually incorporated into an
earth bund or dam. Choose darkcoloured pipe (eg black) as lengths of brightly coloured pipe
can be visually intrusive in open landscapes.
- Dropboard sluices are relatively simple structures, comprising a series of boards which
drop into a grooved spillway. To counteract seepage, two parallel sets of boards may be used.
Water levels are adjusted by inserting or removing boards as appropriate. Construction details
are given in Brooks (1981).
- Lifting-gate sluices are characteristic of old water meadow systems. Water level control is,
however, difficult using this type of sluice.
- Tilting-weir or drawbridge sluices are very effective, but relatively uncommon. They are
based on a hinged weir that can be adjusted to give very precise water level control. However,
they are more expensive.
In areas where flooding of adjacent land must be prevented and sluices are not large enough
to take predicted storm flows, a spillway must be incorporated into all sluice designs.
27
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Design of timber dam and sluice
Winter water storage
Where summer water supplies are unpredictable, construction of a water reservoir may be the
only option. Water storage systems greatly facilitate water management during spring and
summer. Care should be taken when siting the reservoir to ensure valuable habitats are not
destroyed. Wherever possible steps should be taken to ensure a wildlife-friendly design (see
Orford 1996 for details). The following options greatly enhance the value of reservoirs to
aquatic plants and animals:
- Providing floating islands, planted with vegetation, which will be used by nesting birds and
other wildlife.
- Creating a deep area in the reservoir bed provides water for fish and invertebrates even when
the reservoir is low during the summer.
- Creating a shelf for marginal plants and maintaining a water flow to the shelf during summer
draw-down is an expensive option but very worthwhile. Water can be provided to these
areas by bleeding off some of the water during abstraction from the reservoir.
Pumps
Pumps are required to move water against prevailing hydraulic gradients. Pumping is often
used where more water is required than can be supplied by inflowing streams, groundwater or
precipitation, for example to move water from a low-level drainage channel to supply a raised
water level area. Pumping may also be used to alleviate the effects of stagnation where flows
have been arrested owing to construction of dams, bunds or sluices. Wherever possible wind-
pumps should be considered.
Pump specifications must match site water requirements and conditions. The following
considerations should be taken into account when considering a pumping operation and what
type of pump to use:
- volume of water and rate of delivery required
- the height of head (vertical difference between input and output levels)
- distance between intake and discharge points
- proximity to electricity supply
- whether an abstraction licence is required
28
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Surface irrigation (grips or foot drains)
Grips or foot drains are small spade-sized channels, connected to the main water system.
Typically a grip is 30-60 cm wide and no more than 50 cm deep. On sites with old surface
grips or foot drains flooding them in winter can be an effective way to keep soils locally wet
(surface irrigation). Grips were often spaced just far enough apart for natural and efficient
sub-surface feed between them. During the summer, grips should be kept wet until the need
for the desired high water level has passed.
Water may have to be pumped into the main feeder drainage channel or from the drainage
channel to the field to ensure supply. Often the grips can have their own wildlife interest, for
example, they are often dominated by yellow iris. Management options for grips are similar to
those for drainage channels
Sub-surface irrigation
Sub-surface irrigation (where the infrastructure exists) can be used to raise soil water-tables
on sites where the distribution of water channels is too sparse to guarantee the delivery of
water to field centres. It is not recommended that subsurface irrigation systems are installed to
achieve this aim, as they act as an efficient and uncontrolled drainage system when drainage
channel levels are low. Sub-surface irrigation can use natural water-soil transfers or water can
be helped to reach the centres of fields by the use of sub-surface pipes, either plastic pipes or
compression mole drains (sub-surface channels forced through the soil), dug from feeder
channels or drainage channels maintained at a higher level. Installation of a new piped system
or moiling should not be considered in areas of archaeological interest, as it can be damaging
to remains below the surface.
The pipe systems transport water to the centre of a field using simple gravity feed from a
feeder channel. However, there are several important principles and requirements that must be
adhered to for success:
- Any smearing or compaction around the plastic pipe must be kept to a minimum to enable
the water to move easily in and out.
- Avoid using plastic pipes in soils rich in free iron to avoid blockage with iron ochre. Mole
channels could be satisfactory in these situations, being easy and cheap to renew if blockage
occurs.
- Milled mole channels (ie where the soil is removed mechanically to create a subsurface
channel) are much more satisfactory in peat soils than compression moles and can have a
life of 3-20 years depending upon the type and density of the peat.
- Milled moles must be installed under saturated conditions with an adequate supply of water
in the feeder drainage channel to lubricate the machine. This technique avoids the need to
lower water-tables and drainage channel levels before installation as is required with pipe
drains.
Subsoiling is another recognized agricultural technique frequently used in cultivated fields. Its
potential value in improving soil structure on wet grassland sites is not clear. Anyone wishing
to undertake such an operation should seek expert advice and ensure that there is no damage
to archaeological interest on their site.
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Advantages and disadvantages of foot drains
Advantages
- Good for creating linear pools in summer.
- Particularly useful on clay and silt where use of sub-surface pipes may be impractical, soil
permeability is poor and movement of water through the soil is nonexistent.
- A rapid way of creating shallow floods, particularly when drainage channel levels are high,
for wintering wildfowl.
- Excellent where the field profile is naturally concave and water can be run on merely by
raising drainage channel levels.
- If blocked off at the drainage channel end in early spring, can be used to create valuable
feeding areas for breeding lapwings and redshanks.
Disadvantages
- Impractical for transporting water in summer as it is rapidly lost into the soil and through
evaporation.
- The channels create extra hazards for machinery, particularly during mowing operations.
- In many cases water must be pumped from the drainage channel into the grip.
3.3. Water Quality
Water quality is particularly important for drainage channel plants and invertebrates. The
main water quality problems likely to be encountered relate to eutrophication, levels of
salinity, the presence of toxic iron and sulphur compounds and the presence of agro-
chemicals. Heavy sediment loads are also a problem for some species. To establish the nature
of water quality problems at a site it may be possible to use information from the relevant
government agency water quality monitoring programmes, or water-testing may be required.
Chemical analyses, invertebrate or plant monitoring may also be used.
Eutrophication
Lowland water courses are frequently polluted by elevated levels of nitrate and phosphate.
This may be a result of fertilizer leaching from farmland or from point sources of treated
sewage effluent. For all natural trophic states the ratio between nitrogen and phosphorus lies
in the range of 10-20 parts of nitrogen to 1 of phosphorus. Changes beyond these ratios may
indicate a potential pollution problem. Algal blooms and the presence/absence of different
indicator species can indicate pollution problems.
Many sites are affected by flood control works upstream, which alter the timing of flows and
floods. Uncontrolled winter flooding nowadays can spread silt containing high levels of
phosphate over a site and potentially reduce botanical and invertebrate interest. Historically
this practice was carried out deliberately by farmers to enhance fertility and probably
benefited some grassland plant communities (eg at Southlake on the Somerset Levels and
Moors, UK).
Where there is concern about high river nutrient levels:
- abstraction of river water should not be undertaken during the first flood after a long dry
period, as the water will contain high nutrient levels flushed from the catchment
- abstraction should be undertaken just after flood peaks, to avoid high sediment
concentrations to which phosphates may be bound.
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Salinity
Most plant and invertebrate species have a restricted range of tolerance to salinity. Salt is a
very efficient herbicide for all freshwater plants and at salinities in excess of 200 mg/1 of
sodium, freshwater communities may become stressed.
Clay and peat soils lose their structure on exposure to sea water. Clays lattices break down
and the soil becomes fluid and deoxygenated. Sodium replaces calcium in the soil structure
and plants and invertebrates, which are not adapted to saline conditions die. Even if such
extreme conditions are absent, freshwater plants will die when their roots hit a saline water
table. Maintaining conditions of salinity to which the flora and fauna are adapted is very
important. For invertebrates, gradients of salinity can be vital in maintaining some species and
communities of high conservation value.
Under stable salinities the tolerance of freshwater plant communities is higher. Fluctuating
salinity can reduce tolerance by a factor of 4. Plants found at a stable salinity of 1,000 mg/1
sodium will become stressed if the salinity fluctuates between, for example 1,000 mg/1 and
250 mg/1 and if fluctuations persist, the community will tend to become confined to areas
where the water has an average sodium concentration of 250 mg/1 or less (Remane and
Schleiper 1971). This has major implications for the maintenance of aquatic communities
dependent on brackish water.
Toxic effects of iron and sulphur
There can be problems with iron toxicity (ochre) in some peat soils. Under certain conditions
peats form a toxic iron pan which plant roots cannot penetrate. Drainage channels dug in such
peats can release a toxic tide of iron-rich water. Pools can be created in iron-rich peats if
water levels are kept stable. However, if levels are allowed to fluctuate, ferric sulphates and
sulphides can form on exposure to the air as levels fall. These are reduced to the ferrous state
as levels rise again and combine with water to form sulphuric acid which, depending on its
concentration can be very damaging to the ecosystem.
Solutions to water quality problems
Dealing with water quality problems may require drastic measures including:
- isolating areas of conservation value from a eutrophic water supply
- phosphate stripping.
Isolation of a site from a eutrophic water supply may involve major land-forming works, for
example the construction of bunds, though in some circumstances, it may be possible to
construct simple dams to isolate drainage channels from eutrophic rivers. However, measures
should be taken in the first instance to address the cause of the problem where possible before
considering such an option. Phosphate stripping has been carried out by the water companies
to remove up to 90% of the phosphate contained in sewage effluent before it is released into
rivers. It has been shown to provide benefits over 5-10-year periods, reducing algal levels and
allowing some plant recovery. The lag-time before recovery takes place is very dependent on
the nature of the sediments. It is a relatively expensive technique which should only be
considered for large-scale treatment of phosphate-rich water. However, a small experimental
system at Slimbridge in Gloucestershire (UK) has proved very effective. This uses crushed
limestone to absorb phosphorus from nutrient-rich water (Hawke and José 1995). Potential
solutions to water quality problems are listed in Table 4.
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Possible solutions to some water quality problems where the source cannot be tackled
Sediment loading
- Construct sediment traps at inflow points to remove sediment
Phosphorus enrichment
- Strip phosphates using limestone, eg in specially constructed channels.
Nitrogen enrichment
- Consider use of reedbeds or other wetland plants to breakdown nitrate. Use watertable
management to encourage denitrification.
Acidification
- Buffer using limestone.
Salinity
- Dilute with fresh water.
- Gypsum can sometimes be effective in reducing salinity in pools.
Iron ochre
- Seal drainage channel sides. A precautionary approach should be taken when digging new
drainage channels or ponds, to avoid iron ochre deposits.
Buffer zones may be used to treat more diffuse sources of nutrients, including agricultural
run-off (Large and Petts 1992). These are considered in detail in Haycock et al (1997), which
should be consulted for further details.
3.4 Drainage channel management
Assuming there is appropriate water quality and water level, the most diverse drainage
channel floras and faunas are found on sites with:
- extensive networks of drainage channels
- a wide range of drainage channel types
- a range of seral stages, representing habitats from open water to drainage channels choked
with well established emergent vegetation
- sympathetic drainage channel maintenance regimes.
Channel maintenance is critically important for both wildlife and drainage. It is clearly
important to identify who has responsibility for the maintenance of drainage channels on any
site, prior to commencing any work. Cleaning drainage channels (slubbing) prevents the
choking of channels and involves the removal of plant material and accumulated silt. In the
past this would have been done manually on a ,,little and often" basis, using scythes, peat
spades, or sharp chains dragged along the bottom of the drainage channel by two people.
These techniques resulted in a great variety in the depth, width, profile and vegetation
composition of drainage channels, providing suitable habitat for a diverse range of species.
Nowadays, by employing a rotational program and a ,,little and often" philosophy, mechanical
management can maintain a similar variety of successional stages.
Before undertaking channel management, it is advisable to undertake a rapid survey, to
identify stretches supporting rare plants, such as sharp-leaved pondweed, which may have
special requirements. Similarly, some invertebrates like the variable damselfly may be
restricted to short lengths of drainage channels.
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Drainage channel profile illustrating the different growth forms and habitats of aquatic
and bankside plants
Frequency of management
To maintain a diverse community of plants and associated invertebrates, a range of drainage
channel management rotations should be adopted. Infrequent management, or its restriction to
a limited part of the drainage channel system at any one time:
- allows a full range of successional stages to develop
- permits less mobile species to escape catastrophic effects
- may require specific intervention to control weeds.
Highest species diversity of floating, emergent and submerged aquatic plants is most often
associated with freshwater drainage channels managed every three to five years (Thomas et al
1981, Wolsey et al 1984). Drainage channels on peat may have to be cleaned more frequently
if they are subject to subsidence and are essential as wet fences. Brackish drainage channels
require less maintenance and can be managed on a 10 year rotation.
Length of rotation depends on factors such as whether the drainage channels have an
important water transport or livestock control function, or the type of grazing animal present.
Possible options for drainage channel cleaning cycles are:
- light maintenance every year
- a two-year cycle, cutting half of the channel width each year
- less frequent routine maintenance with targeted control of emergents more often as
necessary
- radical cleaning of 10-20% of the drainage channels every year
Distribution of management
In drainage channels where the prime function is one of drainage, sympathetic management is
still possible. Options for dredging and cutting aquatic and marginal vegetation annually, to
cater for the needs of wildlife and drainage are:
- leave a continuous strip of emergent and aquatic plants untouched on one margin
- leave a fringe of emergents on both sides of the channel
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
- dredge a sinuous route, leaving plants in patches on alternate sides (scalloping)
- dredge 30 m for full width of channel then leave 10 m dredged to half the width and so on.
Level-dependent drainage channels, ie those where water flow is less than 20 m/hr and
where drainage is of secondary importance, can be managed to include a range of vegetation
stages from clear, open water with submerged, floating and emergent plants to developed
reed swamp:
- Ideally 10-30% of the ditches in one marsh should be slubbed out annually in late summer
and early autumn.
- Care should be taken to work from one side only or to clean only part of each ditch in any
one year.
- Water levels should preferably be maintained at marsh height during spring and early
summer with a water depth of 0.7-1 m.
Maintenance of flow-dependent drainage channels, ie those ditches where water flow
exceeds 20 m / h, should be carried out to retain a variety of channel features and flow
velocities:
- always try to leave at least 10% of the channel vegetation uncut
- create a sinuous, de-silted channel within wider drainage channels to mimic natural
meanders, with a wider margin on the inside of bends for wetland plants to establish
- maintain any natural meanders in the channel
- where gravel beds and riffles have established try to leave alone as these are important
habitats
- leave channel features that result in variety in flow velocity and substrate. For example,
where banks have slumped this often constricts the channel without significantly reducing
overall flood capacity (but increases the velocity of water, creating silt-free and valuable
habitat)
- do not over-widen the channel as this will promote siltation, smothering valuable habitats
and increasing maintenance frequencies
- maintain or create wet marginal shelves
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Sympathetic options for drainage channel management
Timing
Drainage channels management should be undertaken in late summer or early autumn:
-
after plants have seeded
-
after the bird breeding season but before wintering birds arrive
-
when water levels are low.
Tools and techniques for channel maintenance
Tractor-mounted diggers are the best tool to use, as they are relatively inefficient, leaving
patches of vegetation undisturbed and creating an irregular profile (Doarks 1994). Cutting
should always be carried out above the sediment layer. Spoil is usually disposed of on-site by
incorporating into adjacent land. To avoid problems with the disposal of spoil:
- deposit spoil away from the bank and in areas of low wildlife interest. Avoid smothering
important bankside and field habitats
- leave spoil on the bankside for several hours to allow invertebrates and amphibians to return
to the water
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
- place spoil where eutrophic run-off from plant decomposition does not feed directly into a
watercourse
- do not in-fill wet hollows with spoil as these may provide important habitat for waders and
wildfowl
- ensure that livestock do not have access to spoil that may contain toxic aquatic/bankside
plant matter (eg hemlock, iris and water-dropworts)
Where spoil is to be disposed of off-site, and used or sold for bund construction etc, the
mineral planning or local planning authority should be consulted.
Drainage channel reprofiling
Profile and depth significantly influence the wildlife value of drainage channels. Some
species are dependent on specific water depths. It is important to maintain a variety of depths
in the channel, grading to a shallow, wet marginal fringe. Winter levels are not so critical, but
some water must be maintained year round. Drainage channel reprofiling offers opportunities
to enhance the interest of existing networks, and also removes accumulated sediment full of
nutrients. If drainage channels become regularly choked with algae, consider removing the
sediment layer on an annual basis, and try to identify the nutrient source and consult the
relevant Government agency over its treatment.
For major reprofiling of drainage channels, work should be carried out on one side of the
drainage channel only and in alternate 100 m stretches. Remaining sections should be
reprofiled only when the originally worked sections have recovered (Figure 3).
As a general rule cutting into the substrate should be avoided where problems with ochre are
suspected. When disturbed, some peat soils leach iron hydroxide which is toxic to plants and
invertebrates. Overdeepening of drainage channels should also be avoided.
Drainage channel creation
It may be desirable to create new drainage (irrigation) channels to:
- improve water transport capacity
- provide additional aquatic habitat.
New drainage channels should be 70-100 cm deep and have a shallow profile (30-45°). It
should be remembered that physical disturbance of soil when creating new drainage channels
may release nutrients and cause eutrophication in the new drainage channel. New drainage
channels should not therefore be connected up to pristine drainage channel networks until
their nutrient status has stabilized. At Ludham Marshes (Norfolk, UK) this process took three
years and involved the annual removal of invasive species such as reed. At new drainage
channels riparian habitats can be created.
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Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Options for drainage channel enhancement by reprofiling
37
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
Sequence of drainage channel reprofiling
Bankside management
The design and management of drainage channel banks can contribute greatly to the overall
wildlife value of the drainage channel habitat. A steep, deep bank, commonly found in the
hydraulically efficient trapezoidal channel, is of relatively little value for wildlife. The most
diverse drainage channel margins are invariably of a shallow gradient and lightly grazed by
cattle. This creates a damp marginal habitat for numerous invertebrate and plant species.
An edge trampled by stock will cause slumping of the banksides, but there are many
ecological advantages to such a trampled zone. Trampling creates a berm which provides a
niche for shallow water and bare mud-adapted plants and animals. Many annual plants, some
of which are nationally scarce, thrive in such habitats. Bare mud is also a critically important
38
Wetland Managemenent and Restoration
niche for many invertebrate species. The best option is to ensure a diversity of treatments,
ranging from trampled, muddy edges to long bankside vegetation.
The most diverse banksides can contain relict fen communities of ancient wetlands and are
important refuges. Where drainage channels with an important water-carrying function also
support such communities or other scarce or rare species, it may be advisable to dig separate
feeder drainage channels, rather than risk losing species through regular maintenance.
However, cutting of botanically diverse banksides can sustain communities if the timing and
frequency is adjusted to annual reproductive cycles of constituent species.
Recommendations:
- As a general rule, floristic, invertebrate and bird diversity can be maintained by cutting one
side of the bank only, in alternate years (ie a two-year rotation). Cutting should take place as
late as possible, preferably after the first frost or around October. If it is necessary to cut
earlier, cutting in mid-August allows most plants to set seed and gives time for any second
broods of birds, such as reed warblers, to fledge. Even so, cutting at this time will affect the
survival of some late-flowering plants and some invertebrates.
- Cutting vegetation on longer than a 1-year rotation encourages coarser species and provides
cover for nesting birds.
- It is best to remove cut material to prevent it falling into the drainage channel, as it may
impede drainage and cause pollution when it rots.
- Where possible grazing of bankside vegetation is preferable to cutting as it introduces
greater structural variety (from bare, poached muddy margins to long, rank vegetation) and
is less destructive.
Pesticides also have an impact on aquatic flora and fauna (Beardall 1996). A recent report
(NRA 1995) concluded that, although surprisingly little ecological fieldwork had actually
been completed, significant effects were found at disturbingly low water column
concentrations for some pesticides ,,concentrations likely to arise from normal usage".
In UK, this has led the Environment Agency to recommend a minimum 6-m ,,no spray zone"
for all pesticides adjacent to all watercourses. The Pesticide Safety Directorate (PSD) have
already restricted the use of over 150 pesticides from a 6-m buffer zone adjacent to all
watercourses, and more will no doubt be restricted as the PSD reviews other products on the
market.
39
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
4 Nutrient and Toxic Removal
4.1 Mechanisms and Processes Involved in Nutrient Removal and Storage in Riverine
Wetlands
Mathias Zessner
Transport
Transport is the most important mechanism in respect of nutrient removal in riverine
wetlands. Nutrient removal in wetland systems is limited by the amount of nutrients
transported into the wetland. This amount always has to be considered in comparison to the
nutrient load transported in the river itself, if the removal efficiency of wetland systems is
studied. Nutrients in river systems are transported as dissolved compartments or as particulate
compartments. For the nitrogen transport in river systems mostly the dissolved compartments
prevail, phosphorus is mainly transported in particulate forms. Monitoring concepts have to
focus on the transport of nutrients into and out of a wetland. In respect of the transport of
nutrients to riverine wetlands it has to be distinguished between three pathways: (i) transport
during low flow and average flow conditions, (ii) transport during high flow and flood
conditions and (iii) transport by groundwater or infiltration water (bankfiltration). Nutrients is
transported out of the wetland system by the same pathways as they are transported into it. In
addition to water related nutrient fluxes for nitrogen depositon and biotic N-fixation have to
be considered as inputs into the wetland systems.
Transport at low flow and average flow conditions
Generally concentrations of the sum of dissolved fractions of nutrients transported in river
systems, predominate the particulate forms at low and average flow conditions.
Concentrations of the dissolved fractions of nutrients usually not change very much in
dependency of the discharge (e.g. figure 1). Main parts of nutrients transported at low or
average flow are in dissolved forms and the main parts of a yearly discharge of dissolved
nutrients in a river are transported at low or average flow conditions. Transport into a wetland
system during low and average flow happens only through channels that are connected with
the main river most of the time. The potential retention is limited by the water volume flowing
through these channels (e.g. para potamons). Other important factors are flow velocities and
the residence time in these channels.
6
Total Nitrogen
5
Inorganic Nitrogen
4
3
N (mg/l)
2
1
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Q (m³/s)
Figure 1: Relation between discharge of the Danube at Vienna and nitrogen concentrations
(1978-1997) (Zessner, 1999)
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Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Transport at flood conditions
Transport of suspended solids (SS) and thus transport of nutrients in particulate forms in river
systems is highly dependent on the flow regime of the river. Concentrations of suspended
solids usually rise at high flow and flood conditions with increasing flow (figure 2).
Therefore, the SS-load transported rises superproportional with increasing discharge. The
transport of suspended solids happens mainly at high flow and flood conditions. At flood
conditions loads in the size of the yearly averages can be transported in the river within few
days. In respect to the nutrient transport into the wetlands all flooded areas are endowed. This
might be only temporarily connected channels as well as terrestrial ecosystems. In respect to
the transport of suspended solids (and nutrients bound to suspended solids) into wetlands
mainly flood conditions are of interest.
2
Total Phosphorus
Dissolved Phosphorus
1
P (mg/l)
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Q (m³/s)
Figure 2: Relation between discharge of the Danube at Vienna and phosphorus concentrations
(1991-1997) (Zessner, 1999)
Transport by groundwater or infiltrating water
In additions to the input by surface water nutrients may be transported into wetlands by
groundwater (from the catchment) or by infiltrating water (from the river system). Mainly
nitrate is transported this way over longer distances. Ammonia and Phosphate are absorbed,
precipitated or metabolized in the underground under aerobic conditions. Transport of
Ammonia and Phosphate might be of higher importance under anaerobic conditions.
Depostition, N-fixation
Depostition is the nutrient input via the Atmosphere. Average values for Austria are about 20
kg N/ha.a, which is more than an average removal by harvest from a forest ecosystem. N-
fixation is done by bacteria living in symbioses with leguminous and for instance arles.
Amounts depend on the presence of these plants. Free living bacteria are able to fixate up to
30 kg N/ha.a. As a general tendency N-fixation will by higher in cases of nitrogen deficiency.
Storage
Storage can be considered as temporary or long lasting retention in the wetland system. Main
mechanisms and processes that lead to storage are: sedimentation, precipitation, adsorbtion
and filtration to sediments, algae and plant uptake as well as heterotrophic growth. Most of
the nutrients stored in wetlands will be stored only temporarily.
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Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Sedimentation
The transport of suspended solids depends on the flow velocity. In zones with reduced flow
velocity sedimentation takes place. This may happen in the channels (e.g. para potamons) of
riverine wetlands as well as in flooded areas. Only particle bound nutrients are affected. These
nutrients may be matter of further transformation (mineralisation, remobilisation/solution,
resuspension, etc.)
Precipitation
Phosphate may be precipitated mainly as Strengit (FePO4), Variscit (AlPO4), Struvit
(MgNH4PO4) or Apatit (CA10(PO4)6(OH)2). In waters that are rich with lime the Apatit
precipitation induced by macrophytes may have an important role in respect to the phosphorus
cycle.
Algae (macrophyte) growth leads to CO2 consumption and pH increase. This leads to
disturbance of the calciumcarbonate calciumbicarbonate equvilibrium. The precipitation of
calcite is introduced, but Calcium may be precipitated as Apatit (e.g. Dihydroxyapatit
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) as well if ortho-phosphate is available. The growth of 1 g of algae biomass
may induce a precipitation of up to 2,3 g of phosphorus by this way. This significantly
exceeds the phosphorus uptake by algae (Kreuzinger, 2000).
Apatit precipitation (Kreuzinger, 2000)
Iron or aluminium precipitation happens in case of infiltration into soils, underground and
groundwater. Together with ferric or aluminium ions phosphate may be precipitated.
Prerequisite are aerobic conditions and the availability of ferric or aluminium ions, which is
mostly the case in sediment/soil/subsurface conditions. In general this process will be of
importance only in case with infiltration into sediments and underground (groundwater).
Adsorption and filtration
Mainly polyphosphates, organic phosphorus compounds and ammonia can be adsorbed at the
matrix of sediments (e.g. clay particles, extra cellular polymeric substances (EPS)). This is
42
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
mainly important in respect to infiltration into groundwater. Suspended substances and
particulate organic matter (POM) containing nutrients may be retained by filtration in case of
infiltration from wetland channels into the groundwater.
Algae uptake and sedimentation
For algae growth of 1 g biomass (DS) an average from about 8 mg P and 60 mg N are needed
und thus taken from the dissolved fraction. The P-content in macrophytes might be much
smaller (e.g. 2,3 mg P/g DS; Humpesch et al., 1998). The amount of nutrients taken in by
algea is stored in the algae biomass and after dying off transported to the sediments by
sedimentation. In addition to nutrient availability important factors controlling this process are
temperature and light. Thus the intensity of biomass production highly depends on seasonal
changes. In addition it is influenced by the suspended solid concentrations, which might limit
the availability of light for algae growth. Nitrogen will be released with degradation of the
biomass, while phosphorus might be precipitated and stored in the sediments under aerobic
conditions or be released as well under anaerobic conditions.
Plant uptake and sedimentation/huminification
If transported to the terrestrial ecosystem of wetlands (deposits from floods, transport by
groundwater, direct uptake form surface waters) nutrients might be taken in from terrestrial
plants as well. The nutrient uptake from plants in forest ecosystems is somewhere around 100
to 150 kg N/ha.a and 3 10 kg P/ha.a. Fertilised agricultural systems have uptake rates
between 130 and 200 N/ha.a and about 15 20 P kg/ha.a. Plant residuals (e.g. leaves) are
matter of degradations, huminification, mineralization and release and will be (temporarily)
stored in soils to some extent. In addition the input into the water courses by falling leaves can
be considerable. Again seasonal changes are of high importance. In contradiction to algae
terrestrial plants form more stable particulate organic matter (POM) for storage. In addition
growth of trees in wetland my have influence on the storage of nutrients in wetlands by
forming debris dams.
Heterotrophic degradatation and growth
Heterotrophic microorganisms degrading organic substances need nutrients for the growth. Of
main importance is the biofilm at the bottom sediments of channels. Makrozoobenthos
grazing this biofilm can transport the nutrients deeper into the sediments. In addition
macrozoobenthos degrades the coarse particulate organic matter (C-POM) to fine particulate
matter (F-POM). In case of infiltration F-POM will be transported more deeply into sediments
and interstitial.
Removal
In contradiction to "storage" "removal" is the final elimination of nutrients out of a river by
wetland system in a way that no future release from the wetland system to the river will
happen. In this sense only denitrification and harvest can be considered as "removal" out of
the river and wetland system. In addition storage (retention) of nutrients over long periods
(e.g. decades) may be considered as removal as well, depending on the regarded time horizon.
43
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Denitrification
Denitrification in general is the reduction of nitrate. Several processes are known. The most
important denitrification process in case of nitrogen removal from wetlands is the
denitrification by heterotrophic microorganisms. In case of absence of dissolved oxygen
nitrate is reduced to gaseous N2. Depending on conditions of denitrification N2O may be
produced as well. For the denitrification of 1 g NO3-N about 1 g TOC is consumed by the
bacteria. The availability of organic carbon and temperature are important factors in respect to
the intensity of this transformation.
The carbon source in a wetland for denitrification may be organic substances transported into
the system from the river. More important is algae (plant) production in the wetland. 60 mg of
nitrogen are taken in for the production of 1 g algae biomass. This algae growth leads to an
input of about 330 mg TOC into the water. Degraded under anaerobic conditions this may
lead to a denitrification of up to 330 mg NO3-N, which is significantly more than the nitrogen
consumed for algae growth. In addition of TOC availability scarcity of oxygen is controlling
this process. Even if soluble oxygen is measured in the water phase denitrification might take
place at places where the transport of oxygen is restricted. Mainly bottom sediments are
decisive in this respect. Even if there is enough oxygen on the surface of the sediment, the
transport into deeper zones of the sediment is restricted in contradiction to the transport of
nitrate and conditions for denitrification might be advantageous.
In addition to the heterotrophic denitrification autotrophic denitrification may be of
importance in sediment and subsurface zones in the case of presence of pyrite. Again the
absence of dissolved oxygen is a prerequisite for this process. For each g of removed NO3-N
about 0.7 g Pyrit are needed.
Harvest
Harvest is the removal of plants or their products out of a wetland system. This might be the
case if there is any use for agriculture or forestry. For instance the removal of nutrients with
the harvest from grassland can by quantified with 30 50 kg N/ha.a and 7 9 kg P/ha.a for
each cut. From a forest an average value of about 5 kg N/ha.a and 0,5 kg P/ha.a can be
removed if the wood is harvested.
Longtime storage
Sediments (from suspended solids, plant/algae residuals, precipitates) and adsorbed nutrients
can be stored in wetland systems over longer times. If this is a continuous process of stock
building within the time horizon considered, this kind of storage can be seen as removal. In
this case either the sediments retained in the wetland (silting) or the nutrient concentrations in
sediments increase. Silting may lead to the loss of wetlands.
Release
Nutrients stored in wetlands are matter of release as well. Erosion is the sediment/soil output
by surface runoff from the wetland surface. This happens at flood conditions as well as
through heavy rainfall. Resuspention means release of bottom sediments of wetland channel,
which increases with increased flow. Stored nutrients are transferred into dissolved forms by
mineralization, solution and desorbtion. Transport out of the wetland might be via surface
waters (channels or flood events) or groundwater.
44
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
4.2 Economic Valuation Of Nutrient Sink of Floodplain Meadows
Rastislav RybaQLþ-iQâHIIHU0LUNDýLHUQD
As humankind has continued to develop there has been an increasingly significant loss of
biological diversity, mainly at an ecosystem and habitat level. This depletion has been caused
by conversions in land use, where another more intensive (and from a human point of view
more effective) way of use has replaced a previously more sustainable way of use.
Moreover, in some cases the destruction of biodiverzity and functioning ecosystems can
severely damage ecosystem services that support society and its long-term survival.
Consequently, action to remedy this damage may be more costly than the benefits of
development. This is why it is very important to determine the role of conservation of
biological diversity in economic development.
Until now, even though it has been generally appreciated that conservation and restoration of
biodiverzity are investments in the future of society, it has often been suggested that such
investment primarily serves aesthetic rather than economic or social values. Our dependence
on functioning ecosystem services and resources form biodiverzity is not broadly recognized
(Swanson & Barbier 1992). Therefore, the valuation of protected areas (and benefits from
their conservation) provides an economic rationale, which complements the biodiverzity
rationale for governments - and others - to invest in them (Bagri et al. 1998).
From this point of view it is important to know the economic value of both the sustainable and
development alternatives. On a general level, several theoretical studies concerning the issue
of monetary valuation of environ-mental goods and services have been done. As we know,
the use of biodiverzity, natural habitats and protected areas to produce environmental goods
and services is multifunctional. For example the Morava floodplain is used for hay
production, pasture grazing, recreation and angling. Therefore, the majority of authors
(Barbier 1992; Perrings 1995; Pearce & Moran 1994; Turner et al. 1994; Bateman 1996;
Turner et al. 1996; Bagri et al. 1998) either use or recommend the concept of total economic
value (TEV) as a theoretical base for valuation.
TEV is broadly accepted as, a general base for valuation of environmental assets. However,
since it is very complicated and time-consuming, only a few studies considering more than
one kind of total economic value (Bateman et al. in Andréasson-Gren & Groth 1995) have
been done. On the other hand, according to Bagri et al. (1998), it is rarely necessary to
undertake a valuation study that measures all of the values identified in the TEV.
Although the issue of valuation of the benefits of biodiverzity conservation seems to be the
most intangible and problematic in the case of environmental valuation, there are some useful
works that can be used as a framework for the valuation of the benefits of conservation of the
Morava floodplain.
The approach used by Constanza et al. in their study (1997) is an important milestone in the
issue of environmental valuation. These authors tried to estimate the economic value of the
world's ecosystem services on a global level. As one of its main outcomes, this paper showed
a major dependence of the global economy on functioning ecosystems and their ecosystem
services. Although this article raised quite a big polemic debate (e.g. Daly 1998; El Serafy
1998 etc.), the paper gave a new point of view to the valuation of ecosystem services and
pushed the discussion forward.
There are quite a lot of studies dealing with the economic valuation of wetlands and the
benefits of their functions in ecosystems and landscape (Gren et al. 1994; Barbier 1994;
Andréasson-Gren & Groth 1995; Frederiksen 1996; MacDonald et al. 1998). Other authors
(Vymazal, 1995; Kowalik & Obarska-Pempkowiak 1996 and Craft & Richardson 1996) have
45
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
underlined the organic nutrients sink (nutrient abatement) as one of the most important and
most valuable ecological functions of wetlands.
In the following studies, the authors value the sink for nitrogen as a significant ecosystem
service and thus the biggest part of the TEV of a particular locality. Andréasson-Gren &
Groth (1995) worked on a study on the economic valuation of the Danube floodplain. For the
estimation of the total value of the Danube floodplain, they used the values from different
selected services produced by the chosen floodplain habitats. The floodplain services were
divided into the following classes: input of production goods (wood, grass/hay for cattle and
fish); ecotechnology (nitrogen and phosphorus abatement) and finally consumption
(recreation including hunting and angling). The nitrogen sink was considered the most
valuable service of the Danube floodplain's TEV.
Gren (1995) investigated the effectiveness of investment for nitrogen abatement. She
compared investing in wetlands (either restoration of natural or creation of artificial
wetlands), wastewater treatment plants and pollution reduction measures in agriculture.
Through analytical results and the empirical example of Gotland island in Sweden, she shows
the marginal value of investment in wetlands, including current and future utility, exceeds that
of other measures.
As identified above, knowledge of the values of biodiverzity and ecosystem services in
protected areas are the essential assumptions for effective investments in conservation
measures. Moreover, in our opinion, there is a big gap in research concerning the economic
values of environmental goods in Slovakia and only few studies have been carried out on this
issue (e.g. Kluvánková 1998).
The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate that sustainable5 use of the Morava floodplain is
more valuable for society than other alternative uses, i.e. using it as arable land or for gravel
mining. Further, we want to show that investments in the restoration of degraded meadows in
the Morava floodplain are profitable for society not only from an aesthetic and intrinsic, but
also from an economic point of view.
Therefore, the main objectives of this chapter are to calculate the benefits of the nitrogen sink
in the lower part of the Morava floodplain's species-rich meadows (indirect use value).
Furthermore, we want to compare the profit of sustainable use of these species-rich meadows
with profits from another alternative, to use it as arable land and make an Cost-Benefit
Analysis of investment in the restoration of arable lands in the meadows of the Morava
floodplain.
Methods
The valuation study is conducted on a complex of floodplain meadows in the Slovak part of
the Morava floodplain. The assessed regularly cut meadows have an area of 1727 hectares of
grasslands. As a general framework for obtaining a value of the benefits from the
conservation and restoration of the Morava floodplain we used the concept of Total Economic
Value (TEV) as it was described in many studies (Barbier 1992; Perrings 1995; Pearce &
Moran 1994; Turner et al. 1994; Bateman 1996; Turner et al. 1996). The TEV concept is a
well-established and useful framework for identifying the various values associated with
environmental goods (Bagri et al. 1998).
5 By sustainable use of these meadows, we mean that way of use, which does not deplete biodiversity of these habitats in long term view (i. e.
hay production, pasturing, fishing, hunting and recreation that do not exceed the carrying capacity of this area).
46
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
The concept is based on the assumption that the economic value of environmental goods is
composed of the following types of different values (Rule 1).
TEV = (DUV + IUV + OV) + (BV + EV) (Rule 1)
Where DUV is a direct use value; IUV is an indirect use value; OV is an option value; BV is a
bequest value; and finally, EV is an existence value.
In accordance with the ecological conditions and requirements of biodiverzity protection, the
best agricultural use of this area is hay production and pasture grazing. From the point of
view of nature conservation, we can consider this way of management of the Morava
floodplain meadows as sustainable. The sustainable use of these meadows is more efficient
and valuable if Rule 2 is valid (Pearce & Moran 1994).
B(SUB) - C(SUB) - [B(DEV) - C(DEV)] > 0 (Rule 2)
where B(SUB) is a benefit of sustainable use of meadows; B(DEV) is a benefit of
development of the land (e.g. to use it as arable land); C(SUB) is the cost of the sustainable
use option; and finally, C(DEV) is the cost of the development option.As the base for
measurement of the benefits of sustain-able use of the Slovak part of the Morava floodplain
we used the following classes of floodplain ecosystem services:
· Direct use values: input in production of market goods - hay/grass for cattle.
· Indirect use values: ,,ecotechnology" - nutrient abatement.
In this valuation study, we only considered direct and indirect use values because it is not
necessary to undertake a valuation study that measures all of the values identified in the TEV
(Bagri et al. 1998). A similar approach was used in the valuation study of the Danube
floodplain (Andréasson-Gren & Groth 1995). Moreover, in our opinion the production of hay
and nutrient abatement represents the biggest part of TEV of this area.
Hay production
The production of hay is a traditional form of agricultural management in this area. Farmers
usually mow meadows once or twice a year depending on flood conditions. For a calculation
of the benefits of the production of hay we used direct market prices. The prices of hay are
actual prices on the market (1200 Sk/t of hay). Data used in the analysis were obtained from
local farmers, co-operatives and agricultural firms. These data were collected in the form of
questionnaires (Stanová et al. 1997)
Nitrogen abatement
To obtain the value of nitrogen abatement in the lower part of the Morava floodplain, we used
the substitute market approach. The value of the nitrogen sink (equal to around 434 tons of
nitrogen removed annually on an area of 1727 ha) can be expressed in monetary terms as the
operational clean-up cost for the same amount of nitrogen in a conventional wastewater
treatment plant with the biological elimination of nitrogen. The capacity of wastewater
treatment plants (WWTP) is measured in equivalent citizens (EC). Every EC produces about
11 grams of nitrogen per day. The efficiency of the cleaning process of a WWTP with the
biological elimination of nitrogen is 50 %. If we extrapolate this to a meadow complex, the
47
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
area of meadows incorporates 50 % of 864 tons of nitrogen per year into its biomass. The
capacity of the wastewater treatment plant, which represents the same clean-up potential, can
be calculated as (Drtil & Hutnan 1999; Drtil personal communication):
2 . Rm[tN/y]
C[EC] =
PEC[tN/y]
where C[EC] represents the capacity of WWTP, Rm is the clean-up of nitrogen from
meadows in the form of hay and PEC is the production of nitrogen by one equivalent citizen
per one year (production per day is about 11 grams of nitrogen). The operational costs of a
wastewater treatment plant (OCWWTP) consist of labour (CL), energy (CE), chemicals
(CCh), transport (CTW) and waste disposal (CDW).
OCWWTP = CL + CE + CCh + CTW + CDW
We did not value the phosphorus abatement because the phosphorus is removed from both
floodplain meadows and WWTP by the same processes as nitrogen. Therefore, it is not
necessary to detail phosphorus abatement separately.
Cost-Benefit Analysis of restoration of floodplain meadows
Furthermore, we investigated whether the investments in wetland restoration and its
sustainable use are more valuable than other alternative uses of land as arable land. We used
the Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) approach. The theoretical model adopted in BCA is the so-
called compensation principle. According to this, if the monetary value of benefits from the
activity exceeds the monetary value of costs, then the winners can hypothetically compensate
the losers and still have some gains left over (Munda 1996). In other words, the future profit
for the whole of society has to be bigger than the cost associated with the conservation and/or
restoration including all kinds of costs and benefits. The restoration of species-rich meadows
will be done on the basis of DAPHNE's proposal for restoration and management of meadows
in the Morava floodplain (· effer at al. 1995). The detailed description of methods and
activities of meadow restoration is in Chapter 7.
The successful restoration of degraded or converted wetlands is a process, that will take some
time. A restored wetland does not provide all services (e.g. good hay production and nitrogen
sink) until the restoration process is completed. Therefore, we used a 10-year period for the
Cost-Benefit Analysis of degraded meadows restoration (140 ha). This time should be
sufficient for full development of wet meadow communities that will provide above-
mentioned ecological services. In accordance with experiences after the first year of
restoration (1999), the production of hay and nitrogen abatement was about 1/3 of expected
productivity after upon completed restoration. Similarly, for the second year we expect about
2/3 of productivity of investigated services. We suggest that restored meadows will provide
whole productivity of services in the third year of restoration.
The monetary expression of restoration costs are derived from the market cost of degraded
and converted meadow restoration (140 ha). For restoration of meadows, we used agreed
prices that reflect the level of market prices for such kinds of agricultural activities. The final
48
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
price for restoration consists of the costs of cultivation, seed collection, mowing twice in the
first year and additional seeding and mowing in the second year.
The data on agricultural production used in this BC analysis are from the agricultural firm
Agra-M Malacky (Masarovic personal communication). This agricultural firm manage the
biggest part of degraded and converted meadows in the Morava floodplain and the project of
restoration is done at their agricultural land.
We did not discount the estimated values. Still, there is no consensus among environmental
economist whether it is necessary to employ the discount rate in every case of environmental
valuation of future benefits (e.g. Folmer et al. 1995; Coker & Richards 1996; Green 1996;
Rees & Wackernagel 1999). In our opinion there is no need to discount the future benefits of
restoration of the Morava floodplain meadows in the BCA in this study because these benefits
may became more valuable in the future (mainly nitrogen abatement).
Results
In this section, we present the findings and results of the valuation analysis and BCA from the
assessment of sustainable use of the meadows of Slovak part of the Morava floodplain. The
results are presented in the tables and/or graphs with commentary. We evaluated two
ecosystem services of floodplain meadows: hay production and nitrogen abatement. Further,
we assessed the economic value of other land use alternatives to use these meadows as arable
land for production of corn. Finally, we made a BCA of investment in the restoration of
degraded meadows in the Morava floodplain.
The Value of Hay Production
The ecosystems of the Morava floodplain meadows are semi-natural ecosystems and they are
fully dependent on human management. Therefore, the best form of management of this area
is the production of hay. In this part, we assessed whether the hay production is also valuable
for farmers. There is a long tradition of high quality hay production in the Morava floodplain.
The hay is used for feeding livestock and in the past it was exported to Austria. Usually
meadows are mowed twice a year depending on weather and flood conditions.
As we can see from Table 1, the production of hay is quite profitable. Despite they do not sell
hay, they use it for their own needs. The average net benefit from hay can reach over 3.4
millions Sk (79 093 EUR) for the whole meadow area. However, there are some problems
with the second mowing, which is not profitable for the average yield. In practice, farmers do
not mow a second time when the yield is not very good. In accordance with the analysis, the
second mowing is profitable only when the yield exceeds two tons per hectare. The quality
and yield of the hay depends on weather, duration of floods and other ecological conditions.
Tab.1. Hay benefit potential for species-rich meadows in the Slovak part of the Morava
floodplain (1727 ha of meadows).
1st mowing
2nd mowing
Area of meadows in hectares
1727,0
1727,0
Average yield from 1 ha in tons
3,5
1,5
Average yield from whole area/t
6044,5
2590,5
Moving cost for 1 ha
2 000 Sk
2 000 Sk
Moving cost for whole area
-3 454 000 Sk
-3 454 000 Sk
Benefit from 1 t of hay
1 200 Sk
1 200 Sk
Potential benefit from hay
7 253 400 Sk
3 108 600 Sk
Net benefit
3 799 400 Sk
-345 400 Sk
Net benefit for both mowing
3 454 000 Sk
At 1999 prices
49
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
The Value of Nitrogen Sink
The nutrient sink and especially nitrogen sink is one of the most important ecosystem services
of wetlands (Vymazal 1995; Kowalik & Obarska-Pempkowiak 1996; Craft & Richardson
1996). Vegetation uptake of nitrate present within the floodplain is variable in the space
(depends from vegetation type) and the time (depends on temperature and light conditions).
During growing season, vegetation uptake will be at a maximum in late spring and summer,
when temperature and light intensity are at maximum. The uptake of nitrate by vegetation is
only a storage process and haymaking will act to remove this nitrate from the ecosystem.
Denitrification is a microbial process in which nitrate is reduced through different
intermediate stages NO2, NO, N2O, into gaseous nitrogen (Haycock et al. 1993). This system
process constitutes a system of removal, since nitrogen is lost from the ecosystem, and in
most cases being trans-formed into non-polluted gaseous end product N2. The activation of
these processes depends on the presence of nitrate NO3-N, a suitable carbon substrate and the
absence of oxygen. The moisture regime must be variable, that is there must be a wetting and
drying cycle of the soil and this will enhance the microbial activity and affect the rate of
denitrification. Total nitrogen gaseous losses from different soils measured under field
conditions in wetlands can vary from 0.5 to 2.4 kg of N per ha/day (Fustec et al. 1991). All
these preconditions are fulfilled in the Morava floodplain region and we can suppose a very
high rate of denitrification processes here. These two primary retention/transformation
processes, vegetation uptake and microbial denitrification, work together to provide effect-ive
ground water purification.
In the Morava floodplain, the nitrogen abatement makes up the biggest part of the Total
Economic Value. Table 2 shows us the content of nitrogen in the dry biomass of the grassland
parts in the study area. Nitrogen in the form of dry biomass is annually removed from the
ecosystem. We did not take into account denitrification processes in the study area. Nitrogen
removed from the floodplain through the denitrification process is in addition to the nitrogen
abatement in the hay biomass.
Tab. 2. Nitrogen in the dry biomass per type of grassland community in the Morava
floodplain (1727 ha of meadows)
Dry
Content of
Area (ha)
Dry
Content of
biomass
N (t.ha-1)
biomass per
N per
(t.ha-1)
community
community
(t)
(t)
mesophytic
13.8 0.16 287 3
961
46
meadows
moist meadows
17.1
0.26
716
12 244
186
wet meadow
14.3
0.25
516
7 379
129
reed canary grass
23.6 0.30 64 1
510
19
community
tall-sedges 20.7
0.28
57
1
180 16
reed grass
28.9 0.44 87 2
514
38
community
Total
1727
28
788
434
The amount of 434 tones of nitrogen, which is removed annually by the investigated meadow
part of the Morava floodplain in the form of hay, represents a yearly production of around
216,000 equivalent citizens (Drtil & Hutnan 1999; Drtil personal communication).
Therefore, the monetary value of the nutrient sink in the study area is equal to the operational
50
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
cost of a wastewater treatment plant with the capacity of 216,000 equivalent citizens (EC).
Operational costs of this kind of wastewater treatment plant are calculated in Table 3.
Tab. 3. Monetary value of nitrogen abatement in the Slovak part of the Morava floodplain (1
727 ha of meadows) is equal to the operational costs of elimination of 434 t of N/year in a
WWT plant (216,000 EC)
Cost per day
Cost per year
Labour
10 000 Sk
3 650 000 Sk
Energy (18100
36 200 Sk
13 213 000 Sk
kWh/day)
Chemicals for cleaning
7 000 Sk
2 555 000 Sk
process
Sludge deposit (55
27 500 Sk
10 037 500 Sk
m3/day)
Sludge transportation
1 000 Sk
365 000 Sk
Total
81 700 Sk
29 820 500 Sk
Data - Drtil (pers. comm.)
In 1999 prices
The estimated monetary value of the nitrogen sink in the Morava floodplain (1727 ha) is
around 29.8 millions Sk (682 860 EUR) per year. Moreover, it should be noted that the
building cost of a new WWT plant will reach approximately on additional 300 millions Sk (6
869 704 EUR).
Benefit-Cost analysis of conservation of the floodplain meadows
In the BCA calculations (Table 4.) we decided to use the following categories: hay
production, recreation and rearing of wild animals for hunting. Although there are
insufficient data about the value of recreation and production of wild animals for hunting we
used these categories because these activities play an important role in this area. In the table,
these values are expressed as >0 Sk (more than zero). It means that recreation and rearing of
wild animals for hunting have significant value and this should be taken into account in the
valuation of this area.
51
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Tab. 4. Value of benefits from meadows in the Slovak part of the Morava floodplain (per area
1727 ha)
Cost
Benefit
Benefit
1st Scenario
2nd Scenario
good
yield
poor
yield
Hay production - 1st
-3 454 000 Sk
8 289 600 Sk
6 217 200 Sk
Mowing
Hay production - 2nd
-3 454 000 Sk
4 144 800 Sk
2 072 400 Sk
Mowing
Recreation
0 Sk
>0 Sk
>0 Sk
Wild animals production
0 Sk
>0 Sk
>0 Sk
Nitrogen sink (434 t.h-1)
0 Sk
29 820 500 Sk
19 880 300 Sk
Total (estimate)
-6 908 000 Sk
Minimum 42 254 900
Minimum 28 969 900
Sk
Sk
Net benefit (estimate, B-
-
More than 35 346 900
More than 22 061 900
C)
Sk
Sk
Net benefit per hectare
Around 20 000 Sk
Around 13 000 Sk
In 1999 prices
Scenario 1: 4 t.h-1 of hay for 1st mowing and 2 t.h-1a for 2nd one;
Scenario 2: 3 t.h-1 of hay for 1st mowing and 1 t.h-1 for 2nd one
We assessed two scenarios of benefits because of some uncertainties. The first scenario is an
optimistic scenario where we assumed maximal yields of hay (4 tonnes from hectare for first
mowing and 2 tonnes for the second one). In contrast, the second scenario is pessimistic and
is based on minimal yields of hay (3 t for the first mowing and 1 t for the second one). The net
benefit of the first scenario with a good hay yield is around 35.3 millions Sk (809 409 EUR).
The net benefit of the second scenario with a pure yield of hay is around 22 millions Sk (511
600 EUR).
As we identified in Table 4, the total social economic benefit from the conservation and
sustainable use of the Morava floodplain amounts to 13 000 - 20 000 Sk (300 - 458 EURO)
per hectare.
Benefit-Cost Analysis of Floodplain Meadows' Restoration
DAPHNE - Centre for Applied Ecology, is running a project of species-rich meadow
restoration in the Morava floodplain. This project has been implemented in the middle part of
the Morava floodplain near the village of Gajary. The objective of DAPHNE's project is the
transformation of arable land into meadows with a natural species composition. The cost of
restoration is calculated in Table 5. The data are based on DAPHNE's project costs. In
accordance with these data, the cost of returning 140 hectares of arable land to meadows with
a natural species composition is 3 276 000 Sk (75 017 EUR).
52
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Tab. 5. Cost of meadows restoration in the Morava floodplain (140 ha)
Restoration cost of 1 ha
Restoration cost 140 ha
Seed mixture
5 000 Sk
700 000 Sk
Seeding and turf transplanting
2 600 Sk
364 000 Sk
1st Mowing
2 000 Sk
280 000 Sk
2nd Mowing
2 000 Sk
280 000 Sk
Seeds for 2nd year
2 500 Sk
350 000 Sk
Additional seeding in 2nd year
1 300 Sk
182 000 Sk
Second year mowing 2x
4 000 Sk
560 000 Sk
Third year mowing 2x
4 000 Sk
560 000 Sk
Total
23 400 Sk
3 276 000 Sk
At 1999 prices
Additional seeding in second year will be done only on 50 % of total area (i.e. 70 ha)
Furthermore, to obtain the value of the nitrogen sink of the restored area (140 ha) we
estimated the total amount of nitrogen, which can be removed from this area is 22.4 tones per
year. We used a similar approach to the one for the valuation of nitrogen abatement across
the whole meadow area. The wastewater treatment plant, which is able to remove 22.4 t of
nitrogen, has a capacity of about 10 300 citizens. The estimated of value of this ecosystem
service over the study area (140 ha) is in Table 7. The net benefit from the nitrogen sink is
estimated to 1 514 750 Sk (34 622 EUR).
Tab. 6. The poten-tial value of nitrogen abatement in the restored meadows in the Morava
floodplain (22.4 t of N/year from an area of 140 ha) is equal to a wastewater treatment plant's
operational costs to eliminate 22.4 t of N/year.
Cost per day
Cost per year
Labour
1 000 Sk
365 000 Sk
Energy (18100 kWh/day)
1 700 Sk
620 500 Sk
Chemicals for cleaning process
300 Sk
109 500 Sk
Sludge deposit (55 m3/day)
1 000 Sk
365 000 Sk
Sludge transportation
150 Sk
54 750 Sk
Total
4 150 Sk
1 514 750 Sk
At 1999 prices
Moreover, we calculated the potential benefit from corn production over 140 ha in the Morava
floodplain. The data used were obtained from the agricultural firm AGRA-M Malacky
0DVDURYLþSHUVRQDO.RPPXQL.DWLRQ 7DEOHVDDQGEVKRZWKHSRWHQWLDOEHQHILWIURP.RUQ
cultivation in this area. Due to regular floods, corn yields every year. It are not usual. More
often, there is no corn yield and farmers only harvest green corn plant biomass for silage from
fields in inundated area. Therefore, we divided the assessment of benefit potential from corn
production into two scenarios. The first scenario is optimistic and we assume that there are
optimal conditions for corn growing in this area (no floods). The second scenario is
pessimistic and we assume a wet year and the flood conditions are unfavorable for corn
growth. Consequently, farmers are only able to harvest green biomass for silage, which is not
as valuable as corn production.
53
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Tab. 7a. Potential benefit from corn cultivation in an exceptionally dry year when the
1st Scenario - dry year
1 ha Corn
140 ha Corn
Average yield (t)
4,5
630
Average cost of corn
5 100 Sk
714 000 Sk
production (ha)
Benefit from yield (3000 Sk/t)
13 500 Sk
1 890 000 Sk
Net benefit
8 400 Sk
1 176 000 Sk
At 1999 prices
Tab. 7b. Potential benefit from corn cultivation in an average wet year when farmers harvest
green corn biomass for silage over the meadow restoration area (140 ha)
2nd Scenario - wet year
1 ha Silage
140 ha Silage
Average yield (t)
17,5
2450
Average cost of corn
7 950 Sk
1 113 000 Sk
production (ha)
Benefit from yield (650 Sk/t)
11 375 Sk
1 592 500 Sk
Net benefit
3 425 Sk
479 500 Sk
At 1999 prices
There are results of the calculation for the first scenario (dry year) in Table 7a. In a dry year
when there are no floods in the cornfields, there is the potential to harvest corn from an area
of 140 ha. The potential value of harvested corn is 1 176 000 Sk (26 929 EUR).
Furthermore, in Table 7b the potential benefits of the second scenario in a typical wet year are
calculated when corn cannot be harvested due to floods. In this case the average net benefit
from the green corn biomass for silage is 479 500 Sk (10 980 EUR).
As a support argument for restoration of degraded and converted meadows, we calculated the
10 year BCA of the restoration and after-restoration period in order to work out the real value
of the restored meadow with all functioning services. For this analysis we used the outcomes
from Tables 5 - 7a and 7b. Again, we decided to assess BCA through two scenarios. Since
there are uncertainties in flood frequency and duration during the assessed 10 year period, in
scenario A we assumed that each year of the ten year period is dry, without floods and so the
potential yield (and also monetary value) of corn expressed in the opportunity cost is very
high.
On the contrary, in scenario B, we assume that there are only wet years without corn yield and
farmers use the corn biomass only for silage. Of course the monetary value of this production
is lower than corn production. The successful process of restoration lasts at least two years,
but we can expect fully functioning services after the third year. In accordance with our
experiences after one year of restoration, we estimated the values of the assessed ecosystem
services (hay production and nitrogen abatement) as 1/3 of the full value. Similarly, in the
second year we estimated the values of these services as 2/3 of the full value. The estimates
of the ecosystem services in the third year of restoration will have reached their full values.
The calculations of the costs and benefits of restoration for both scenarios are shown in Table
8 and 9. As it can seen from the total net benefit after the tenth year, the social benefit in
scenario A amounts to 2.77 million Sk (63 579 EUR). The social benefit in scenario B is over
9.7 millions Sk (223 070 EUR).
54
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Tab. 8. Benefit-Cost Analysis of degraded meadows restoration in the Morava floodplain (140
ha)
Scenario A - each year is dry and the corn yield is good
Year
Costs
Loss of corn
Benefits
Total Benefit Cummulative
Mowing
(twice
Restoration
production
Hay
Nitrogen sink
-Cost
Benefit - cost
a year)
production
1.
-560 000 Sk -1 064 000 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
299 970 Sk*
504 866 Sk* -1 995 164 Sk -1 995 164 Sk
2.
-560 000 Sk
-532 000 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
599 940 Sk# 1 009 732 Sk#
-658 328 Sk -2 653 492 Sk
3.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk -1 974 742 Sk
4.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk -1 295 992 Sk
5.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk
-617 242 Sk
6.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk
61 508 Sk
7.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk
740 258 Sk
8.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk 1 419 008 Sk
9.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk 2 097 758 Sk
10.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk -1 176 000 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk
678 750 Sk 2 776 508 Sk
Total
-5 600 000 Sk -1 596 000 Sk
-11 760 000 8 099 910 Sk 13 632 599 Sk 2 776 509 Sk
-
Sk
* 1/3 of full ecosystem services
At 1999 prices
# 2/3 of full ecosystem services
Tab. 9. Benefit-Cost Analysis of degraded meadows restoration in the Morava floodplain (140
ha)
Scenario B - each year is wet and only green corn biomass is utilised
Year
Costs
Loss of corn
Benefits
Total Benefit Cummulative
Mowing
(twice
Restoration
production
Hay
Nitrogen sink
-Cost
Benefit - cost
a year)
production
1.
-560 000 Sk -1 064 000 Sk
-479 500 Sk
299 970 Sk*
504 866 Sk* -1 298 664 Sk -1 298 664 Sk
2.
-560 000 Sk
-532 000 Sk
-479 500 Sk
599 940 Sk# 1 009 732 Sk#
38 172 Sk -1 260 492 Sk
3.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk
114 758 Sk
4.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk 1 490 008 Sk
5.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk 2 865 258 Sk
6.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk 4 240 508 Sk
7.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk 5 615 758 Sk
8.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk 6 991 008 Sk
9.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk 8 366 258 Sk
10.
-560 000 Sk
0 Sk
-479 500 Sk
900 000 Sk 1 514 750 Sk 1 375 250 Sk 9 741 508 Sk
Total
-5 600 000 Sk -1 596 000 Sk -4 795 000 Sk 8 099 910 Sk 13 632 599 Sk 9 741 509 Sk
* 1/3 of full ecosystem services
At 1999 prices
# 2/3 of full ecosystem services
The cumulative cost-benefit is depicted in Figure 1. It depicts two curves representing the
limits of minimal (scenario A) and maximal (scenario B) estimates of the net social benefit of
the restoration of degraded and converted meadows over a ten year period. In all probability,
a real net social benefit lies between these two curves.
It should be noted that probability of scenario A is around 20 - 30 per cent and probability of
scenario B is between 70 - 80 per cent.
55
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
Fig. 1. The cumulative cost/benefit of 10 years' restoration and the after-restoration period for
both scenarios (A and B).
Discussion
As was shown in the previous section, conservation and restoration of the Morava floodplain
has a significant monetary value. (See Tables 4, 8, 9). The Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) of
conservation of this area (Table 4) showed that sustainable use of this floodplain also has
significant monetary value. Moreover, BCA of floodplain meadows' restoration (Tables 8, 9
and Figure 1) showed that investments into restoration of degraded meadows yield profits
earlier than investments into transformation of arable soil. Water purification (nitrogen
abatement) is beneficial for society as a whole, yet for farmers it often is not a priority
because water purification produces little financial gain.
A more difficult question is whether results of this study are sufficient incentives for farmers
and landowners to follow sustainable management and to start restoration of degraded
meadows. Nonetheless, successful restoration of 140 hectares of meadows can be a good pilot
project for future investment in further restoration in the Morava floodplain.
After economic valuation of nitrogen abatement, outcomes suggest that wetlands (i.e. river
floodplains) can play a significant role in fighting non-point source water pollution mainly in
agricultural landscape. Moreover, our approach can be used for comparing alternative
measures for water purification purposes. A similar approach was used by Gren (1995) in
valuation of investing in wetlands for nitrogen sink. She concluded that due to multifunctional
use of wetlands, investing in them is the most valuable measure for nitrogen sink for ground
water purification.
In the last few years various valuation studies focusing on environmental goods and services
were completed. The most similar one to our study is Economic Evaluation of the Danube
Floodplains (Andréasson-Gren & Groth 1995). The study is focused on capturing monetary
values of forest, grassland and wetland habitats in the Danube floodplain. The following
values in different categories in this study were addressed: inputs for production of market
goods (wood, hay/grass for cattle and fish production), recreation and nitrogen abatement.
Since it is very complicated to undertake a valuation study for such a big and complex area as
the Danube floodplain, only rough estimates could be produced from the valuation study. On
the contrary, we analyzed more detailed and homogenous data for smaller areas, and
especially in the case of nitrogen abatement, we assume that our outcomes are very realistic.
56
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
In the general view similar total annual values per hectare of conservation alternatives were
identified in both studies. For the Danube floodplain the estimated annual value amounts to
383 EUR (16 700 Sk) per hectare (Anderáson-Gren & Groth 1995); for the Morava floodplain
the value is around 300 - 458 EUR/ha (13 000 - 20 000 Sk/ha).
Finally, this method of monetary valuation may play a significant role in conservation of
biodiverzity and protected areas; however, this issue is rarely addressed in Slovakia.
Furthermore, we can suppose that the identification and estimation of future economic
benefits from sustainable use of protected areas may be a positive incentive for restoration of
degraded habitats. It is assumed that identification of TEV of an area may help to find
financial resources for conservation of unique and valuable localities. Moreover, this
approach can be used for evaluating public development projects in natural and other areas.
57
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
4.3 Toxic Pollution of Water
Maria Minkova
Heavy metals and pesticides pollution is one of the most important, urgent ecological
problems world wide in view of the health risk. One of the main factors, leading to stable
pollution of water recourses is the reduced self-purifying ability of the open water currents, as
a result of reduced river flow, influenced by climate changes and anthropogenic activity.
The current processes of industry and land privatisation, the transition to market economy and
out-of-date legislation in EE countries create conditions for uncontrolled to water pollution.
The processes of joining the EU, designing and enforcing environmental legislation, in line
with EC requirements will result in complex and sustainable water resources management and
decrease of contained toxic products.
The main problems, related to damaging the Danube and its tributaries, could be arranged in
the following groups:
· Legislation problems;
· Problems, related to infrastructure;
· Problems, related to industry;
· Problems, related to agriculture;
· Problems, related to improper activities in protected areas and wetlands;
· Problems, related to water recourses consumption
Toxic water pollution sources
Industry is one of the economic branches with strong impact on open water basins and ground
water. Main pollutants are oil processing and chemical industries, ferrous and non-ferrous
metallurgy, mines and flotation plants, cement, leather and textile industries. These industries
produce great amount of waste water, containing ions of heavy metals, chemicals, radio-
nuclides, waste raw oil and oil products, salty mineralised solutions, flowing into the rivers
and ground waters. Mines and flotation plants in process of liquidation or conservation
through their tailing dumps, containing enormous amounts of concentrated toxic wastes after
mineral processing, are potential threat to the ground waters and surface water basins rivers,
lakes and dams.
Another branch of the economy, which could potentially pollute natural waters, including
drinking water sources, is agriculture. The use of chemical substances for plant protection
(pesticides) and different types of fertilizers is inevitable in modern agriculture. Practice
shows an ongoing increase of the type and quantity of chemical substances. Pesticides are
characterised with high toxicity, persistence and tendency to bioaccumulation, therefore once
introduced in the environment, they constitute direct threat to the natural water, soils,
biological diversity and human health.
Heavy metals
Due to their toxicity, tendency to accumulate and biological activity, heavy metals are a
potential risk to water ecosystems, biodiversity and human health.
The group of heavy metals is diverse. They are bio-cumulative compounds, therefore they
deposit in the environment - soils, waters, plants, animals. Therefore with time passing by,
their content in organism's increases, their toxic impact on local ecosystems rises as well.
Their specific characteristics like reactivity and potential toxicity vary. Quite often the
58
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
relative amount of a single metal in waste water could be much greater than the total amount
of the rest of the heavy metals, which requires toxicity analysis, in view of risk assessment
and safety measures. Eight heavy metals are in environmental focus: mercury, lead, cadmium,
chromium, copper, arsenic, nickel and zinc. During significant industrial accidents big
amounts of cyanide compounds could leak in the open water currents as the incident at Baia
Mare, causing environmental disaster in some areas.
River waters - direct recipients of waste water are very vulnerable to heavy metals pollution
and the same refers to ground water in some areas due to migration process. The high
interest of experts and NGOs in heavy metals water pollution research is caused by the
constant increase of the heavy metal concentration in the oceans, seas and continental waters,
as well as their ability to accumulate in the bottom sediments, to form stable metal - organic
compounds, more toxic than the non-organic ones. The lack of self-purifying mechanism of
water systems from heavy metals and the formation of zones of priority accumulation (surface
micro layer, water organisms and bottom sediments), as well as the diversity of migration
forms there (suspended, colloidal, dissolved, ionic etc.), create conditions for secondary water
pollution and ecological misbalance.
Most common reasons for water pollution with toxic products
· discharge of waste water from small plants, workshops, laboratory farms without proper
purification directly into the sewage system; surface water basins, or more rare, in the
soil;
· unsatisfactory effect of the local waste water treatment plants (WWTP) of the
industries;
· lack of management and control of rain water on the industries sites, leading to surface
and ground water pollution;
· inadequate storage and use of town WWTP and local industrial WWTP sludge
containing persisting cumulated toxic organic and non-organic compounds;
· accidental (incidental) waste water pollution in open currents and reservoirs;
· insufficient preparation for prevention of water pollution at industrial accidents and
disasters (floods, earthquakes slides, droughts);
· inadequate location of pollution sources referring risk, geological and hydrological(
karst, old mines) zones;
· insufficient and inadequate control on sanitation-protective zones for drinking water
sources;
· dumping industrial waste, most of which hazardous, in inadequate located uncontrolled
sites;
· dumping industrial hazardous wastes, in unprotected depots for solid household wastes;
· inefficient control of old depots for toxic industrial wastes, most often tailing dumps,
insufficient monitoring;
· lack of agreement in the actions of state institutions, responsible for problems on a
regional level.
Some problems, typical for EE countries need to be mentioned:
· insufficient level of integrating environmental policy in sectoral policies of state
institution, responsible for sustainable water management;
· financial shortages;
· lack of systematic and updated information on all levels in the competent state
institution;
· insufficient access to IT systems, related to water pollution management;
59
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
· lack of relevant and sufficient information for failures in quantity and quality water
management, due to mistakes, accidents, disasters etc.;
· community administrations, NGOs and citizens are denied free access to the available
information
· no regional information desks available for communication on environmental and
health risk, related to water pollution on case by case level;
· media reacting only in cases of disasters, covering vast areas or high number of
people.
Environmental impact of heavy metals
Heavy metals, over threshold concentration in surface and ground waters are a potential risk
in terms of:
· Ecological status of water systems. The ability of heavy metals to form stable
sediments of highly toxic metal-organic compounds has a damaging impact on water
ecosystems biological balance;
· Biodiversity in river currents and wetlands;
· Change in the quality of drinking water. The main drinking water source is ground
water and dams in some cases;
· Pollution of agriculture water, agriculture areas and production.
· Population livelihood, i.e. fishing or agricultural production for certain periods of time
· Use of river, lake and dam water for recreation purposes;
· Human health after consumption water polluted with heavy metals or through the
food chain, mostly after significant industrial accidents or natural disasters.
Impact of heavy metals on human health
In cases of exogenous intoxication, heavy metals penetrate in human organism through
breathing and the food and digestive tract, mucous membrane and skin. The toxic effect
depends on the type and qualities of the toxicant, dose swallowed and organism status during
the impact. Depending on the exposition to the toxicant and the clinical status, the exogenous
intoxications are acute or chronic. Acute intoxication occur in cases of incidental or short
exposure of human organism to high doze of the toxic compounds, mostly in professional
environment, and the chronic intoxication at continuous exposure to small dozes (months
and years).
In case of heavy metals pollution of water sources acute toxic effect could occur at emergency
events - major industrial accidents or natural disasters.
· Lead In case of chronic penetration in the organism, both in organic or inorganic
form, lead is accumulated in bones and the central nerve system (CNS). Out of these
depots, lead penetrates periodically into the blood, causing additional damage to the
liver and kidneys, haematopoiesis, arterial vessels of the brain and the peripheral
nervous system. The impact on the CNS causes weakened brain activity, reduction of
concentration ability, anxiety. Lead is a potential human carcinogen (according to the
International Cancer Research Agency Classification). The risk group includes mainly
children, mostly babies, as they are especially sensitive to the toxic effect of lead.
Even small quantity in their body could cause retarded physical and mental
development. Lead has toxic impact on flora and fauna indirect potential threat for
humans due to constant consumption of polluted food.
· Cadmium - cumulative type of dangerous metal with systematic toxicity on mammals
and humans. It penetrates the body through respiratory and alimentary tract. Toxic
effects are related to depressing the activity of lifesaving enzymes, resulting in
60
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
phosphorous-calcium exchange and metabolism of many micro-elements in the
human body. Cadmium has neuro-toxic effect, it is accumulated in kidneys, releasing
cadmium ions, and causing secondary damages. Acute and chronic cadmium
intoxication might occur. Acute intoxications are rare clinic conditions and are mainly
due to inhaling cadmium ions with very small diameter. In case of more durable
penetration trough the food tract chronic intoxications might occur as of kidney, liver,
neurology syndromes etc. Cadmium has late effects such as mutagenetic,
carcinogenetic (according to International Cancer Research Agency Classification),
and toxic impact on reproduction. A strong allergen.
· Chromium penetrates the body through the respiratory, alimentary systems or the
skin. Its compounds penetrate comparatively fast and deposit in lungs, liver, pancreas
and the spleen. In case of acute inhalation intoxication some lung symptoms might be
observed. In case of chronic exposure slight changes in the respiratory system;
gastritis and ulcer in the alimentary tract; slight functional changes to nephritis in
kidneys might occur. Oxidised chromium has a carcinogenic effect. In some cases it
causes a negative impact on reproduction. Chromium is a strong allergen. It has toxic
impact on flora and fauna, and transmitted through the food chain is an indirect threat
to humans.
· Copper has a negative effect on agricultural crops and livestock. Copper enters
human body through inhalation and food. Acute and chronic effects of the metal
cause stomach and intestines disorder, kidney and liver failure, anaemia. The acute
effects might occur in labour environment or at incidents with copper compounds, for
example copper sulphate. The acute intoxication is known as "copper fever". Copper
is easily solved, can be found often in river sediments, and is toxic for most water
plants and fish.
· Nickel is a cumulative type of metal, toxic for mammals and humans. It damages
the peripheral and central nervous systems, haematopoiesis, liver and kidneys. Nickel
is a proven sensibiliser and causes allergic, respiratory and skin diseases. One of the
ways it penetrates the body is through the skin during bathing in highly nickel
polluted water.
· Zinc has a negative effect on agricultural crops and livestock.
· Mercury may cause acute or chronic toxic reactions in humans only in a highly
polluted working environment, through inhaling mercury vapours. Highly toxic for
the nervous system and haematopoiesis.
· Arsenic is a highly toxic metalloid, damaging almost all body systems. In case of
chronic penetration causes heavy disorders in the activity of stomach-intestinal and
nervous systems, haematopoiesis, affects bones, kidneys, and liver.
· Cyanides are extremely toxic compounds. The impact on humans and animals is
instant at very small dozes. Once they have penetrated the body, cyanides block the
absorption of oxygen by the cells and block the breathing of the tissues. The
symptoms of acute intoxication are strong suffocation, tremor, and fast loss of
consciousness. Death is almost instant. In case of chronic effect the symptoms are
weight loss, disruptions of the thyroid gland and the nervous system.
Instruments for reducing pollution with heavy ions water
· Design and implementation of sustainable management strategies of water resources and
reduction in toxic waste pollution;
· Limitation of industrial toxic and heavy metals emissions by implementing "best
available technology " and "successful practices";
· Design and construction of local WWTP for the industries, treating water discharged
directly into surface reservoirs or in the community sewage system;
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Nutrient and Toxic Removal
· Rehabilitation, reconstruction and modernisation of the existing industrial WWTP and
improving their maintenance;
· Priority construction of new town WWTP where to collect the polluting industrial waste
water;
· Control over dumping of town WWTP sludge, containing toxic waste.
· Construction of controlled toxic waste depots;
· Monitoring and design of a methodology for impact assessment of non-point sources on
river catchments area;
· Technological improvement of industrial processes i.e. introduction of closed cycles,
reusing waste water etc.;
· Introducing permanent monitoring of toxic waste pollution sources;
· Developing inventory list of past polluting industries, ranging problems in their priority
and a general assessment of the resources necessary for their sanitation, health risk
included.
· Closing of non-organised landfills;
· Updating the existing national emergency action plan for industrial accidents or natural
disasters, as well as emergency plans of industrial plants;
· Strict introduction of administrative and financial instruments, aiming at toxic emissions
decrease, i.e. the "pollutant pays" principle;
· Full access to the available information for community administration, NGOs and
citizens;
· Integration of the environmental policy in the sectoral policies of the relevant state
institutions, responsible for environmental protection.
Problems related to agricultural activities: Pesticides
Use of chemicals for plant protection in agriculture and storage of spare quantities without
adequate competence and responsibilities causes negative impact on the environment.
Pollution of water basins with these hazardous chemicals causes serious environmental
failures and specific problems in using water for drinking, fishing and recreation. Pesticides
penetrate the surface and ground waters directly - by introducing chemicals against water
weeds; from the atmosphere through rainfalls, by filtering of water through the soil; and after
accidents, caused by improper handling. In most cases of incidental surface water pollution
there is a fast toxic effect on water organisms on limited territory, even without significant
registered pesticide concentrations in water. The hidden threat to humans and nature is related
to even small quantities of long term persistent pesticides in the environment, which, without
exception are biological active substances. As it is well known, pesticides from the group of
the so called "global chlorine-organic pollutants" have significant chemical resistance, and
once used, circulate for years, even decades in the environment.
DDT is a striking example - traces of the chemical are still being found tens of years after its
ban in all organisms from all parts of the worls, including water oragnisms from the pollar
seas.
Thanks to the expereince gathered from the use of strong persisting compounds in the
environment, gradually strict environmental and hygenic criteria for their use have been
fromed, which lead to gradual limitation and exclusion from practice of the most stable
compounds. Practically all surface waters are threatened by pesticide pollution - dams, rivers,
sources, seasonal brooks, fish nerseries, as well as ground water, including wells and drinking
water drillings.
Pesticides possess high coefficient of bioaccumulation. This phenomen is characteristic for
substances with high stability, both in the environemnt and in organisms. Due to their high
62
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
stability such substances remain unchanged in every other step in the food chain, therefore
they present a serious ecological and hyegenic problem. Bioaccumulation is characteristic for
chemicals from the group of solid chlororganic pesticides, biphenyls etc, therefore their
release in water reservoars is extremeley undesirable.
Soil microflora contributes most to the self-purification of the environment from pesticide
traces. Compared to soil, water environment is a relatively less suitable place for
microbiological degradation of pesticidess, therefore the half life of these stable substances is
longer. Chemicals with longterm half life are definitely unfavourable (risky) for the
environment, water ecosystems, biodiversity and human health. Accumulation of stable
chemical substances in tissues of water organisms with economic importance has been
proved.
Mobility of pesticides between soil horizons is a very important indicator for assessing the
risk of pesticides penetrating in and polluting ground water. Mobility is often proportional to
water solubility, but for risk assessment however, it is important to note that pesticides are
complex organic substances and their transition through soil is related to a number of physical
and chemical interactions.
The world agricultural practice is to use a huge number of pesticide, which are classified
according to their use, chemical composition, toxicity etc. There is a so called hygenic
classification, setting out the criteria for granting permission for the use of pesticides based on
health and environmental considerations:
c
zero category - chemicals with very high toxicity and stability, with serious negative
effects on the environment and people. They are completely banned. The Stochholm
convention on persistent organic pollutants sests out the so called "dirty dozen", including
especially dangerous substances for nature and people, whose production and use is
banned. From the 12 compounds listed, 8 are pesticides - DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin,
Chlordane, Mirex, Toxaphen, Heptachlor.
c
first category - these substances are not sold in the agricultural drugstores and can only be
obtained from qualified specislists on plant protection, directly from the producers or
specilised trade companies. They can only be applied by specially trained persons.
c
second category - chemicals from this group are sold in agricultural drugstores sepcialised
on plant protection, but should be used by persons who have completed a special training
course for working with pesticides;
c
third category - these are less toxic and less dangerous chemicals, which are freely sold.
Lables contain safety requirements for working with them.
During 1995 - 1997 the PHARE funded "Danube Pesticides Regional Study" Project was
implemented. The project objective was to assess the risk of pesticides use on people and life
in the aquatory of the Danube river and to recommend adequate measure for pollution
reduction. 10 countries participated in the project: Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary,
Slovenia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova and Ukraine. Analysis included 77 types of
pesticides, traces from 39 of which were establised in water, mainly from the group of
chlororganic compounds (HCH isomers, HCB and DDT). Considerably high levels were
establised for some Chlorophenols.
Analysis showed that amounts of DDT and Lindane registered in the Romanian part of the
Danube and its tributaries exceeded with one to two orders the values registered in the rest of
63
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
the countries. This fact shows the uncontroled use of chlororganic chemicals and points out
Romania as one of the hot spots along the Danube. In terms of the other countries from the
Danube basin, the levels of DDT and lindan are as low as to be ignored. The remains of HCB
(hexachlorobenzene) are found in 39% of the positive samples, with most of them registered
in the Slovak and Bulgarian sections of the river. Main atrazine pollutants are Austria,
Hungary and Romania. Despite of the fact that of water samples analyses were not conducted
under the same methodology, the study gave useful general information on the pesticide
pollution of the Danube basin.
Most common reasons for environmental pollution and water with pesticides
· Lack of effective control of responsible institutions in terms of pesticides use;
· Non-compliance with legislation and rules for pesticide use;
· Disregard for sanitary protective zones, around drinking water sources and conducting
various operations in them;
· Inadequate training and incompetence of persons working with especially dangerous
compounds;
· Unpacking, solution preparation and other operations with pesticides carried out close to
surface water baisins;
· Cleaning technical facilities for pesticide application, especiallly large facilities like
agricultural airplanes, helocopter reservoirs etc in open basins. This is one of the most
common cause for water pollution with heavy ecological implications - dead fish,
destruction of water vegetation, wildlife poisoning, pollution of drinking water sources.
· Spilling of waste water close to surface water basins or discharging into them.
c
Improper storage of pesticides in use;
c
Inproper storage of outdated or banned pesticides. Lack of strategy for safe destruction.
c
Ejection of pesticides wrapping in surface water basins.
c
Uneven distribution of pesticides on the treated areas.
c
Pesticide dispersal from airplanes or helicopters in unsuitable meteorological conditions;
c
Poor storage of the remains of unused chemicals for plant protection;
c
Location of zones for intensinve agriculture and animal farms on risk spots in terms of
surface currents, basins and ground water;
Environmental impact of pesticide
Fish - the toxic effect on fish is greater when falling of pesticides into closed basins, than in
fast running water. Sensitivity to pesticides is species relatied. Trout for example is more
sensitive than carp. Chlororganic chemicals are more dangerous than phosphoroorganic.
Many of the herbicides which are slightly toxic to warm blooded animals are poisonous for
fish. The signs of poisoning are:
c
difficult breating (affects gills);
c
excitement with disturbed co-ordination of movement (with chlorine- and
phosphorooganic compounds and herbicides);
c
numbing reflexes for fear (gathering along the banks of water basins);
c
mass deaths.
Young fish get sick and die earlier than normal. Chlororganic pesticides, which persist longer
in water basins also cause chronic damages - affect reproductive products and heredity.
All water animals are exposed to the toxic impact of pesticides.
Wildlife - game live in the open, in larger areas, therefore immediate contact is too limited.
The most common means of wildlife exposure to pesticides is through food and water. In case
of pesticide pollution of the environment there toxicological risks have several aspects:
64
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
c
severe poisoning, resulting in death (sometimes whole herds of wild animals or bird
flocks);
c
reduction of reproductive functions due to lower fertility and egg hatching;
c
remaining amounts of pesticides in wild animal products, which hides an indirect risk for
human health.
Plants - water flora is threatened if large concentrations of pesticides flow into water basins
(i.e. washing agricultural airplanes).
Wetlands - Overuse of pesticides, incompetent handling and lack of safeguarding measures
can have an unfavourable effect on biodivesrity and disrupt environmental balance in some
territories.
Health effects of pesticides
Pesticides flow into the organism through the breathing system (intake of aerosols), the
alimentary system (in case of incident and consuming polluted food and water) and through
the skin (when working with them and swimming in polluted water basisns). Clinical
conditions are severe and chronic.
Chronic intoxications hide greater risk for irreversible damage of the organism, because of the
no-symptom course of bioaccumulation and late effects that they cause.
Carcinogenicity - high risk of mlignant ilnesses of the hemopoietic system, testis cancer,
stomach-intestine tract, liver and brain.
Reproductive toxicity - sterility, miscarriages and still-born children. They are more common
when both parents have been significantly exposed.
Inborn malformations - there are data for increased risk of anomalies of limbs, defects of the
mouth cavity, malformations of the central nervous system, when the mother lives in areas
with more intensive pesticide use.
Late neurotoxicity - some phosphorooganic chemicals can cause muscle feebleness, which
can progress into paralysis. Neuro-psychic reactions are possible - anxiety, difficult
concentration of attention, weaker memory etc.
Immune defficiency - in cases of longterm exposure to lower doses, immune reaction of
higher sensitiviry type (allergic reactions), supressed reactivity, autoimmune reactions might
develop.
Safety requirements for pesticide use around water basins
Along with technological requirements for pesticide use, a high number of additional
requirements must be followed in view of preventing water pollution:
· Using pesticides only when proved necessary, when distribution of pests has economic
implications;
· Use of pesticides, which are technologically efficent and in smaller amounts per surface
unit;
c
Use of biological protection against pests on agricultural crops
c
Observing the defined minimal distances from the water baisins (sanitary protection zones
(SPZ)) when treating land with pesticides. There is a complete ban on pesticide use in belt
A, around the drinking water sources.
c
Safe storage of pesticides. Speciliased storage rooms must in no way be located in areas,
defined as SPZ.
c
Preparation of pesticide solutions has to be done on specialised sites, in sufficiently
remote distances from running water, wells and drillings, and has to be carried out by
competent persons;
65
Nutrient and Toxic Removal
c
Responsible guranting of storage rooms of expired pesticides and prevening access of
casual visitors;
c
Inventory of banned, expired pesticides and development of strategic plans for their
neutralisaiton and elimination.
c
Arranging special sites for cleaning and washing technical equipment for pesticide
application (airplane reservoirs, helicopter reservoirs etc) in view of preventing waste
water spills. Neutralisation of these waters should be carried out under a procedure,
established by the competent authorities.
c
Ongoing control on cases of illegal use or discarding of pesticide remains, banned or
expired trade products;
c
Training of private frims owners or cooperations and persons directly involved in
pesticide use;
c
Informing local authorities for large storage for pesticides, installations for treating seeds,
firms for unpacking chemicals from imported active substances, situated on the territory
of the municipality;
c
Strict control over the production of chemical protection products;
c
Training and awareness raising for the proper use of chemicals on professional, branch
and non-governmental organisations and other active community groups.
Role of the NGOs for reducing water pollution with toxic products
The main role of the public is to co-operate in the implementation of environmental
legislation on national, regional and local level. At the same time, when circumstances require
it, they have to play the role of a corrective for the adequate solution of problems. Depending
on their potential NGOs can successfully get involved in the process of management of water
resources. For this purpose it is necessary those they:
c
require full access to the information available for the pollution of surface and ground
water by industry and agriculture;
c
require particiupation in the decision making process on solving problems related to
management of water resources.
c
Put pressure from "down -up" for the adequate problem solving, whenever necessary (e.i.
EIA procedure, integrated permits, strategic plans etc.)
c
search, collect and distribute information for uncontolled and icident spills of toxic
products in running water;
c
identify and organise inventories of non-point pollutants;
c
require full infomration for the hot spots and critical sections in the catchment area of the
Danube on the territory of the country;
c
participate in setting up and interpretation of the situation analysis for water quality and
quantity;
c
develop a system for independent monitoring and control of pollution from industry and
acriculture, and demand adequate and fast sollution of problems from local authorities;
c
develop independent analyses and risk assessments;
c
participate in developing and implementing awareness raising programmes on the existing
problems and measures - e.g. campaings, public hearings, exhibitions, booklets,
information bulletins, radioprogrammes, TV repotrs etc.
c
hold training seminars for journalists on topical problems;
c
organise special training courses for various professional groups, branch organisations,
NGOs and other groups, snall farmes etc. This type of knowledge dissemination has a
crucial significance for preventing incident pollution from industry and agriculture and
reducing the health risk. Preventing this type of incidents is a question of institutional and
legislative arrangements, as well as established responsible individual behaviour;
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Nutrient and Toxic Removal
c
develop and implemet programmes for environmental and health education of youth and
students;
c
support the implementation of plans for the sustainable water management on national,
regional and local level through development of projects under key programmes;
c
lobbying among leading economic and financial sectors for solving hot problems;
c
in cases of incidents, together with the media to inform the community for preventive
measures.
Note: Each lector from indivuddal countries can add to the information for the thresholds
depending on the national legislation.
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5 Case studies
5.1 Restoration of Streams in the Agricultural Landscape (Sweden)
Lena B.-M. Vought
Human influence on streams and rivers
Historical reconstruction of ancient stream systems shows that many of todays streams have
little in common with those which existed prior to human impact (Wolf 1960, Sedell and
Luchessa 1982 ). Reconstruction of ancient Swedish streams, for example, suggests that they
were typically meandering, had close contact with their floodplains and passed through
extensive areas of riparian wetlands. In more recent times these natural streams have been
profoundly modified. Tile draining of agricultural fields has had particularly detrimental
effects: reducing the stream-land interaction, decreasing groundwater levels and limiting the
extent of the hyporheic zone which surrounds streams (see below). Channelisation of streams
and drainage of riparian wetlands has exacerbated these processes and resulted in the
widespread decoupling of streams and their riparian floodplains.
Reduced contact between the stream and its surrounding environment has led to:
l. Significantly reduced nutriernt retention capabilities of streams (Dahm et al. 1987). This has
led to streams becoming little more than trarisport ditches in terms of their nutrient
dynamics.
2. Changes in the stream hydrograph. Greater peak discharges have often resulted from
installation of more efficient drainage infrastructures (particularly tile-drain networks
connected to deep, straightened and unobstructed channels) with concomitant reduction of
surface and subsurface water storage areas.
3. A reduction in water transit time. The more rapid movement of both subsurface and surface
waters has decreased the self-cleaning capacity of stream ecosystems and resulted in
increased transport of nitrogen and phosphorus to the sea.
4. A change in channel stability. After channelisation (channel straightening, deepening and
creation of steep slopes) streams are hydrodynamically unstable and they attempt to
recreate a more stable form. This instability is compounded by riparian vegetation removal.
As a result, bank erosion, sediment transport and often deposition increase in the channel. .
5. An increase in light penetration to the stream. With the removal of trees and bushes along
the stream, aquatic macrophyte production is enhanced. Macrophyte growth in turn, slows
water flow, increasing sedimentation. Streams may therefore have to be dredged more
often to prevent flooding.
6. A depletion of the flora and fauna around and within the stream. Drainage and
channelisation allow riparian areas to be converted to farmland destroying marginal
wetland habitats. Benthic stream habitats are simplified and repeatedly disturbed by
siltation and subsequent dredging.
7. Decoupling of the land/water interaction. As a result of drainage, most surface runoff enters
streams directly without passing through a riparian buffer strip. This reduces groundwater
recharge. Subsurface flows are altered due to the lower groundwater table. Important areas
for nutrient uptake are destroyed, increasing the downstream transport of nitrogen and
phosphorus.
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The importance of the hyporheic zone
Contemporary river ecology is based primarily on biochemical and geochemical models of
the river channel and its interactions with riparian vegetation. An area that is not commonly
included in these conceptual models are the extensive floodplain aquifers that are
hydraulically connected to the open-channel and the true groundwater (Stanford and Ward
1988). These aquifers are an interface between the basin ground waters and the stream water,
and are referred to as the hyporhe ic zones (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Conceptual model of the groundwater-surface water interface.
The volume of the stream hyporheic zone often considerably exceeds the volume of stream
channel. For example, in the Flathead River (USA), the volume of the water in the hyporheic
zone was 3 x 108 m3 compared to 1.2 x 105 m3 for the stream channel (Stanford and Ward
1988). Similar ratios have been found in Sweden (Vought et al. 1991).
Streams with heterogeneous substrata, and permeable, unconsolidated beds, have been shown
to provide transient storage of nutrients for periods of hours or days (Triska et al. 1989).
There is also evidence that the streambed/hyporheic zone transition area may be an extremely
active site for denitrification (Bencala et al. 1984, Bencala 1984, Williams 1984 Vought et al.
1991, 1994). The streambed/hyporheic area therefore plays a significant role in nutrient
recycling because it acts both to increase the time lag between rain 'event' and surface runoff,
and to provide an increased surface area for nutrient conversions.
Methods for stream restoration
In the following section four of the principal measures used to restore rivers are discussed:
· recreation of buffer strips;
· alteration of tile drainage;
· creation of riparian ponds and wetlands;
· in-channel modifications.
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Buffer strips
Developments in freshwater ecology have increasingly emphasised the strong links between
terrestrial and freshwater environments and focused attention on the importance of the
riparian ecotone: the transition zone between the terrestrial and the aqutic ecosystems.
Most water entering or leaving a stream, passes through the riparian ecotone. It usually does
so via one of five pathways: surface runoff, seepage, shallow subsurface flow, deep
subsurface flow and through drainage tiles. The unique physical and biogeochemical
properties of a riparian ecotone influence the flux of water, nutrients and other exogenous
substances both from the catchment areas to the stream and within the stream and its
immediate surroundings.
Because the riparian ecotone is an active and important area of any stream, appropriate
restoration of this area - as for example a grassland (Figure 2B), scrub or native woodland
(Figure 2C) buffer strip - can be a particularly valuable part of river restoration (Vought et al.
1994).
Figure 2.
A buffer strip as it looks today in the agricultural landscape
Stream with a 10 m wide riparian grass buffer strip
C. Stream with a 10 m wide riparian tree buffer strip
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Nutrient removal in buffer strips
One of the most significant effects of the reintroduction of riparian ecotones along the
margins of a river is that it can reduce input of nutrients entering streams by surface and
subsurface flow (Figure 2A-C). Phosphorus mainly enters streams through surface flow. The
extent of phosphate uptake from surface flows will depend on factors such as slope, water
transit time, vegetation and season.
However, literature sources provide fairly consistent evidence, where most of the phosphorus
is removed with a buffer strip of 10 m width. Nitrogen mainly enters streams through
subsurface flows, and again studies show that the major part of the nitrate is removed with a
10 m buffer strip. This efficient removal of nitrate may be explained by the recent work of
Duff and Triska (1990) who show that much denitrification occurs in the stream hyporheic
zone.
Wooded buffer strips
The reintroduction of trees along stream banks can be a valuable technique in river restoration
because woody vegetation can stabilise stream banks, provide habitats for fish and
invertebrates in amongst their roots, and shade the stream itself.
Many lowland streams have a dense macrophyte vegetation due to high nutrient and light
levels. In Denmark, experiments to reduce macrophyte growth in lowland streams led
Dawson and Kem-Hansen to suggest that the growth of bank vegetation should be increased
to reduce light levels to about half that in unshaded sections (Dawson and Kern- Hansen
1978, 1979, Kern-Hansen and Dawson 1978).
There are some suggestions that alder (Alnus sp.), one of the most common riparian trees in
many parts of Europe, may act as a significant nitrogen source in nutrient poor streams and
lakes (Dugdale and Dugdale 1961). Alder possesses an endophytic actinomycetal fungus in
root nodules, and like leguminous plants, is able to fix nitrogen. Rates of nitrogen fixation of
up to 225 kg N ha-1 yr-1 or 22.5 g N m-2 yr-1 have been measured (Wetzel 1975), however it is
likely that such rates predominantly occur in waters naturally low in nitrate. Preliminary
results from riparian alder woodlands in Sweden, for example, show no evidence of elevated
nitrogen levels. It seems likely that in waters with higher nitrogen levels, alder uses this in
preference to the more energy-costly process of nitrogen fixation.
The effects of buffer strips on fish
The reported effects of marginal shade and cover on fish are varied. Work on forested streams
in westem USA showed that clear-cut areas adj acent to streams increased both the biomass
and the density of cutthroat trout (Salmo clarkii) by a factor of two (Aho 1977). This increase
in trout was explained by the greater food abundance in the unshaded clearcut sections
(Hawkins et al. 1983). Streams in the USA had, however, very low nutrient status and very
dense tree cover compared to most European streams. Other work by Bousse (1954) and
Burton and Odum (1945) have shown contrary trends: that removal of natural cover decreases
populations of trout because it allows summer stream temperatures to rise too high. Similar
results have been obtained by Barton et al. (1985), who in describing the habitat and
physiological requirements of trout, found a 10 m buffer strip to be optimal for supporting
trout populations.
Combining the results from the data summarised above it is sugested that for the instalation of
buffer strips:
· buffer strips providing moderate vegetation shade can be suitable as a means of both
reducing stream vegetation and benefiting trout populations; '
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Case studies
· combining evidence of faunal requirements, nutrient reduction demand and the
farmers´ need for land, a minimum riparian buffer strip width of 10 metres seems a
realistic suggestion; .
· one of the main problems with buffer strips, is that the roots of the woody vegetation
can penetrate and clog drains as they pass under the buffer strip. The solution is either
to replace the tile drains with a solid pipe or to open the pipe and excavate a small
wetland buffer which filters water before it enters the stream (see below).
The likely benefits from restoring buffer strips will be:
· reduction of the amount of nutrients entering the aquatic system;
· improved channel stability;
· decreased light penetration to the stream thereby reducing macrophyte growth in the
stream;
· enhanced fauna and flora.
Amelioration of agricultural point-source pollution by alteration of tile drainage
Many agricultural lands in northern Europe and temperate North America, were originally
developed from floodplain wetlands. To facilitate agricultural land drainage, rivers and stream
channels were frequently lowered and the surrounding lands underlain by tile drains. These
drains now carry nutrient-laden waters below the floodplain to empty directly into streams. In
doing so they effectively create numerous point sources for nutrient pollution and bypass the
natural filtering systems of marginal land areas.
A method which can be used to decrease point-source pollution is to open up the drainage
pipes before they enter the stream. This can be done in one of several ways dependent on the
topography of the landscape.
Opening pipes
Where valley slopes are moderate, pipes can be opened at the valley edge to allow water to
filter through the riparian wetland before entering the stream (Figure 3A). For example, the
drain pipes can be opened up to allow water to flow into a ditch running parallel to the stream
at the base of the break of the slope. The ditch will disperse the water along the length of the
valley and allow the water to trickle through wetland to the stream. This method of using the
riparian wetland as a trickle-filter is similar to that of water meadows, which have for
centuries, taken advantage of the nutrients in stream water to fertilise the land. The main
concern using this method is to ensure that the water is dispersed and slowed, and that
drainage water does not simply run across the floodplain as channelised overland flow.
Riparian wetland horseshoes
Another solution is to use riparian wetland horseshoes (Figure 3B). These are semicircular
shaped excavations which are excavated into stream buffer strip to expose each drainage tile.
The horseshoe is generally dug 8 m into the buffer strip to create a mini-wetland, allowing
water from the pipes to flow over a grassy, shrubby section before entering the stream. An
altemative method is to dig-out small ponds at the stream edge. Both methods will enhance
the self-cleaning capacity of the water and reduce the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus
entering the stream from each point source.
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Case studies
Where land is flat, pipes can simply be opened up allowing water to filter out naturally; the
distance the water flows before entering the stream can be extended by meandering the ditch
channel.
Although each interception area is small, where a large number of wetland horseshoes are
placed along the length of a stream this can have a large impact on total nitrogen inputs. The
effects are greatest during the peak runoff periods of the late fall and early spring when drains
are flowing. This is also the time when most nitrogen and phosphorus is exported from
catchments (Petersen et al. 1987) .
The main benefits of intercepting and ameliorating point sources of agricultural drainage will
be:
· reduction of nutrients lost to the aquatic system;
· stimulation of the growth of the wetland plants along the stream valley.
Figure 3.
A. Drainage tiles opened up at the stream bank (a) and at the beginning of the stream
valley (b) .
B. Horseshoe built within the riparian buffer strip.
Riparian ponds and wetlands
Small ponds created either along the stream valley or within the stream channel are an
economical and multi-use restoration measure (Figure 4). Ponds will collect particle bound
phosphorus and sediment. In addition, organic material will build up which will enhance
denitrification in these areas. Larger ponds can be used for irrigation or for different types of
low intensity aquaculture including the rearing of crayfish, eel, carp and ducks. Intensive
aquaculture is not recommended since it is likely to add to nutrient enrichment problems.
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Case studies
Along many channelised agricultural streams there are areas which are seasonally wet and
often difficult to plough. These swamp areas are usually relicts of former wetlands or swamp
forests, and where it is possible to reclaim them, they can be valuable enhancement sites for
both wildlife conservation and nutrient retention. These areas, similarly to the hyporheic
zones described above, may enhance denitrification. Vegetation from the seasonally wet areas
along the stream will build up areas with high organic content, which together with low
oxygen levels will provide conditions ideal for denitrification.
Strategically, considering the nutrient cycle as a whole, the most cost-effective place to create
pond/wetland areas are close to the sea where nutrient concentrations are at their highest.
Given the magnitude of the problem however, a corridor of pools and wetlands higher in the
catchment may be more effective and have considerably greater overall benefits.
wetlands/ponds placed in the headwaters can also reduce peak flow and retain water for dry
periods. Overall, the restoration of wetlands along whole streams, can enhance water quality
throughout the catchment and will improve the stream ecosystem.
Figure 4. Pond built in the channel of a stream
Benefits of the wetland/pond will be:
· sedimentation of phosphorous-laden particulate material;
· denitrification within the wetland/pond system;
· reduction of peak flows where ponds/wetlands are placed in the headwaters;
· increased water storage which will reduce the occurrence of extreme low flows;
· creation of habitats suitable for wildlife such as ducks, other birds and fish;
· similarly to the hyporheic zones described above, these areas may enhance
denitrification;
· recharge of the water table within the valley which increase the area available for
biological self-cleaning processes;
· an increase in the length of time that water remains in the valley which will aid
selfcleaning
· growth of wetland plants and development of wetland habitats which will improve the
overall aesthetic value of the valley.
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Case studies
In-channel modifications
Side slope reduction
In channelised streams, bank failures along the channel sides are a major source of stream
sediment. Sedimentation can be so great that channelised water courses often have to be
dredged every few years to maintain flood capacity. Inputs of sediment can also considerably
increase phosphorus levels since most phosphorus enters streams bound into, or adhering to,
particulate matter.
In many channelised streams bank slopes are steep; usually at least 50% (i.e. 1:2). Reducing
these slopes to a maximum of 25% (1:4) (Figure 5A) and stabilising them with vegetation can
have several benefits.
Firstly, reduced slopes lower the frequency of bank failure and the amount of soil directly
entering the channel. Secondly, reducing slopes will increase the width of the stream channel
creating an area that will function like a floodplain. This allows the stream to dissipate its
energy during peak flow, reducing erosion of the channel walls. The reduction of water
velocity will also enhance deposition on the channel slopes and prevent sediment transport
into downstream receiving waters.
Riffle-pool sequences
Another feature which can increase the physical complexity of streams are riffle-pool
sequences within the channel (Figure 5B). In natural rivers, riffles and pools occur at more or
less regular intervals, usually with a frequency of 5-7 times the stream width. Construction of
riffle-pool areas has long been the major tool of stream management for trout and other
fisheries. These practices include providing shelter, pools and small barriers to diversify the
stream bed and provide a greater abundance of invertebrate food for trout (Tarzwell 1935). In
some areas riffles have simply been constructed from excess stone material collected from the
surrounding agricultural lands. Exact placement has not been critical since the stàeam resorts
the material over the next 5-10 years. Hynes writing in 1970, regarded the provision of riffle-
pool sequences as the basis of stream management and regretted that their retention and
creation may have gone out of fashion. More recently, as streams have become increasingly
valued as landscape features the importance of riffles and pools are becoming realised once
again.
Recreating meanders
Where streams run across lands of low gradients the most hydrodynamically stable stream
path is the meander (Figure 5C). Reconstruction of meanders is not always easy, particularly
since the original straightening of channels was often accompanied by channel deepening.
Sometimes recreation of meanders requires the provision of land to give room for the
meanders. In other cases water levels have been raised which have simplified the process.
Reconstruction of meanders is a major undertaking and requires expert hydrological and
geomorphological advice in order to create meander widths and amplitudes which are
appropriate for the substrate type and hydrological regime.
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Case studies
Figure 5.
A. Side slope reduction along a stream.
B. Riffle-pool section within the channel
C. Meandering stream
The benefits of channel modification will be:
· decreased bank erosion;
· increased flooding of floodplain which will allow sedimentation of the suspended
load;
· increased complexity of the stream bottom which will enhance the habitat for the
macroinvertebrate and fish fauna;
· increased retention of organic matter due to increased stream complexity, which will
increase available food for macroinvertebrates;
· increased water retention time in the valley which is achieved by a longer stream
channel due to meanders.
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5.2 Restoration of Streams and their Riparian Zones (South Jutland, Denmark)
Mogens Bjorn Nielsen
Background
Rivers and streams are an important component of the Danish landscape, with about 1.5 km of
stream length per square kilometre of land and a total watercourse length of approximatel 65,000
km. A little over half of these streams and rivers are considered to be natural in origin, the
remainder are man-made ditches and drainage canals (Danish Ministry of Environment 1992).
Nearly all streams, man-made or natural, have been straightened, deepened and suffered rigorous
maintenance practices which aim to avoid flooding and to increase drainage efficiency on farmland.
The county of South Jutland covers an area of 4,000 km2 and is predominantly low lying, with
streams of relatively low energy. The riparian zones have largely been given over to agricultural
grassland grazed by livestock. Stream restoration projects, including restoration of riparian zones,
have been in progress in South Jutland for 10 years, and during this time more than 200 schemes
have been undertaken. The main objectives of these schemes have been:
- to reduce nutrient losses from catchments; and
- to protect biodiversity.
Restoration projects have varied from the introduction of single structures (such as gravel spawning
beds) to more holistic measures involving integrated catchment management policies to reduce
pollution, remeander straightened channels, and to restore active floodplains.
Causes of degradation of streams
The effect of agriculture on streams in Denmark
In Denmark, as in much of Europe, the condition of streams and their riparian zones is closely
linked to the development of agriculture. Up to the 1970s, streams were channelised, straightened
and deepened allowing riparian zones to be drained for intensive farming. These engineering works
have now affected most natural stream channels in Denmark, leaving them straight and deeply
incised with collapsing banks. Many streams also transport large amounts of eroded sand giving
them soft, uniform stream beds, without pebbles, cobbles or vegetation. Destroying the physical
structure of streams in this way has, in turn, had a detrimental effect on the number and variety of
stream biotopes, resulting in reduced fish and invertebrate diversity. In particular, in the
channelised and steepbanked streams, salmonid breeding grounds have been much reduced and
undercut-bank cover (an inherent property of meandering streams) is now sparse. Substrates for
invertebrates have been either removed by dredging or buried in fine sand. In addition, nearly all
South Jutland's streams have, in the past, suffered from rigorous management practices (such as
desilting and cutting of stream vegetation) which had been introduced to reduce the frequency of
flooding and to increase drainage efficiency on farmland in the riparian zone.
The intensification of stream management in Jutland has been accompanied by extensive changes
in the surrounding land. At the beginning of the l9th century, semi-natural habitats, such as
meadows and heathland, covered almost half of Denmark. Today this figure has declined to only 5
%. In the same period, the area covered by lakes and wetlands was reduced by over 50%.
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Recent changes
Until recently, the only official function of streams in Denmark was to drain excess rainfall as
quickly as possible from farmland and urban areas. During the 1980s, attitudes began to change and
concern about the environment has led to additional and quite different demands being made on
streams. Now the requirements for streams and their riparian zones are that they must also:
- have a varied fauna and flora;
- be a natural part of the landscape; and
· be aesthetically and recreationally attractive.
This has resulted in the initiation of a great variety of projects to restore channelised streams to a
more ,,natural" form and to raise groundwater levels in stream valleys.
Legislation on freshwater protection
Administrative structure in Denmark
Environmental protection and nature conservation in Denmark is controlled by national, county and
municipal authorities. Each of these three authorities is elected for a four-year period under the
system of proportional representation.
The role of national authorities in water management
National authorities are responsible for developing policies to protect the water environment and
for drawing up legislation, regulations and guidelines for this purpose. National authorities also
collate results from county and municipal environmental programmes to produce nation-wide
surveys and reports. Decisions made by county and municipal authorities can sometimes be
appealed to the Ministry of the Environment or the National Protection Board of Appeal.
The role of county authorities in water management
The 14 county councils in Denmark are responsible for the practical implementation of water
protection and nature conservation legislation (Association of County Councils in Denmark 1993).
As water authorities, they also have responsibility for maintaining the ecology, water quality and
water flow of all larger rivers.
The necessary basis for county policy-making and administration is assured by measuring
environmental quality, both on land and in the water. Nationally, there are 1500 highly qualified
staff employed by the counties to promote environmental protection including: biologists,
geologists, hydrologists, engineers, planners and surveyors. In the county of South Jutland alone
there are about 110 staff employed in these areas.
The county authorities have a wide range of responsibilities. For example they:
-
- supervise and license production in industries potentially dangerous to the environment;
-
- lay down the rules governing the amount of waste materials which may be discharged into
both water and the air;
-
- limit noise pollution; and
-
- may demand the introduction of clean technologies.
One of the most crucial roles undertaken by the county authorities is to act as ,,environmental
watchdogs". The authority sets regional environmental quality objectives for the quality of streams,
lakes and coastal waters. These targets act as the basis for the local authorities' decisions regarding
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wastewater disposal and for the county councils' licensing of discharges into streams, lakes and
marine waters.
For most Danish streams (78% ) these quality objectives relate to fish and 45 % of these,
particularly to salmonids. Environmental objectives relating to fish have proved particularly useful
because they are easily understood by the public and, by using specific fish species, can give a
good indication of the ,,ecological health" of streams.
The role of municipal authorities
The 275 municipal authorities in Denmark are responsible for implementing county policy
guidelines in the form of municipal and local plans that more precisely define future policy.
Municipal authorities are, for example, responsible for implementing measures to reduce pollution
such as sewage and wastewater treatment, refuse disposal and recycling programmes. In addition,
they are responsible for the environmental approval and supervision of all small, and potentially
polluting, private sector enterprises, including farms.
Legislation on streams and riparian zones
Laws regulating the use and protection of Danish streams are contained in 7 Acts:
The Watercourse Act 1982
The Environmental Protection Act 1973/1991
The Water Supply Act 1978
The Nature Protection Act 1992
The Ochre Act 1985
The Nature Management Act 1989
The Freshwater Fisheries Act 1992
The overall objective of this legislation is, as noted above, to ensure that streams have a diverse
flora and fauna, that they are a natural part of the landscape, and that they are aesthetically and
recreationally attractive.
Maintaining high quality streams requires that three conditions are fulfilled simultaneously: (1) that
there is clean water, (2) there is sufficient water and (3) physical habitats are varied.
To provide these conditions it is therefore necessary:
- to ensure that wastewater from sewage plants and septic tanks is adequately treated; - to control
outlets and discharges from agriculture (e.g. liquid manure and silage),
- to ensure that stream maintenance (e.g. cutting stream vegetation and removal of sediment) is
undertaken in a way which is environmentally sensitive; and
- to restore physical habitats in streams which have been severely engineered.
Restoration methods
In Denmark, stream restoration started in about 1980. Physical restoration has followed two tracks:
the introduction of more ecologically appropriate maintenance practices and one-off restoration
schemes (Iversen et al. 1993).
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Changed maintenance practices using ,,soft engineering"
In Denmark, a realisation of the damaging effect that river maintenance practices can have on
stream ecology, led to the Watercourse Act (1982). This resulted in a revision of existing river
maintenance practices and the provision of new regulations which consider both the need for flood
protection and the needs of the environment. The act states, for example, that stream maintenance
must not conflict with the fulfilment of the strearn environmental quality objectives.
Modified maintenance regimes are a valuable part of stream restoration because:
- they can result in considerable ecological improvements;
- they are relatively inexpensive to change in relation to the possible improvements for wildlife;
and
- they can be part of a sustainable solution for managing the stream.
One-off restoration projects
One-off restoration projects can be divided into two types: single-structure restoration and stream
channel restoration.
Single-structure restoration
Folowing single-structure restoration techniques have been successfully implemented in Denmark:
1. Artificial overhanging stream banks to provide cover for fish
2. Stream deflectors to enhance stream velocity
3. Rows of large stones placed along the stream margins to narrow the channel and increase stream
velocity
4. Soft engineering for stream bank protection
5. Fish passes
6. Introduction of gravel beds
7. Introduction of large stones and boulders to increase heterogenity
8. Replacing weirs and dams by rapids
9.Establishing a bypass channel alongside a dammed stream
Selected examples of these single-structure restoration techniques are described below.
Introducing gravel beds
Re-establishment of salmonid spawning grounds is a widespread restoration activity in Denmark,
used to counteract the removal of natural, coarse-grained sediments by traditional dredging
practices and channelisation work. In South Jutland alone, more than 100 stream sections have been
restored in this way.
Biological, geomorphological and chemical investigations of these restorations have shown that
they can have immediate benefits. However, in the long term, their successful implementation
relies on control of the factors which cause excessive sediment transport from upstream, such as
channelisation and subsequent maintenance, agricultural practices and urban runoff.
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As a rule, stretches with large sediment transport should be avoided because excess sediment
transported from upstream rapidly swamps the gravel spawning grounds, rendering them useless.
However, it may sometimes be possible to create hydraulic conditions that will enable at least some
of the gravel areas to remain free of sand.
A short-term solution in lieu of controlling sediment input is to widen and deepen the stream over a
short distance. This creates a simple sediment trap with reducing flow velocities. Although
sediment traps may be useful, they are more generally undesirable both because they are artificial
and because they require regular maintenance.
Removing obstacles to migrating fish and invertebrates
In-stream structures such as weirs and dams can form obstacles to faunal migration, particularly
fish. Since 1980, stream restoration work in South Jutland has involved about 120 improvement
schemes which have removed or modified in-stream obstacles.
In about 60% of restoration projects the barrier effect was ameliorated by modifying weirs to create
extended riffles. To do this a wedge of stones and boulders is placed immediately downstream of
the weir, changing the fall into a riffle and considerably enhancing faunal passage.
Often, however, dams cannot be removed, either for historical or cultural reasons (e.g. water mills,
electricity power plants) or because of economic or legal constraints (e.g. fish farming). In such
cases fish ladders have frequently been used, but more innovatively, restoration projects have
sometimes diverted part of the flow alongside the dammed stream, thereby satisfying cultural,
historical and economic interests while facilitating faunal migration.
Stream channel restoration
Typical methods of stream channel restoration used in Denmark are:
1. Multiple use of single structure elements
2. Establishment of two-stage channels
3. Reopening of piped streams
4. Recreating of old meanders in straightened streams
5. Raising the water level in riparian areas
Selected example, recreation of meanders, is described below.
Recreating meanders
The most radical step in stream restoration is to remove the straightened, channelised stream and
recreate a new meandering channel and at the same time raise the groundwater level in the adjacent
riparian zones in the whole stream valley. Traces of old meanders can often be seen in the form of
small, water-filled depressions.
Planning of restoration schemes starts with the use of old maps, aerial photographs and existing
data on the local geology and the stream hydrograph. After a levelling survey of the stream and its
surroundings, the hydraulic consequences of different restoration measures are modelled using
computer-based hydraulic models. In Denmark, the computer programme MIKE 11 is widely used
to calculate the consequences of the proposed changes. MIKE 11 simulates unsteady one-
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Case studies
dimensional flow in stream channels and adjacent floodplains and is therefore suitable for use in
designing and managing all kinds of streams including restored stream channels.
Attempts are made in these schemes to re-establish the natural riffle-pool rhythm, i.e. length of
riffle 2-3 x channel width at intervals of 5-7 x channel width. This is done by excavating five
typical cross-sections, including one with a point bar on the inside and a pool on the outside of a
bend.
Wooden pegs in different colours mark the new meandering course, showing to the operators of the
excavation equipment which form is to be created where, with a precision of a few centimetres.
This prevents an unnecessarily large transport of sand in the new, unvegetated and therefore very
vulnerable stream bed.
At the downstream end of a new reach temporary sand trap limits the downstream damage caused
by restoration work. This sand trap is made simply by making a 50-100 m stretch about 1 m deeper
and 2 m wider than usual to trap the sediment transported.
Planning of restoration schemes also takes account of the following factors:
l. The remeandered stream course should ideally cross the old straightened section at many points,
in order to enhance the recolonisation of stream plants and animals.
2. Larger stream restoration projects involving major excavation work should be undertaken during
the period with lowest average discharge (in Denmark, this is July-September) and should be
completed before the trout spawning season in autumn.
3. Larger stream restoration projects should also incorporate a primitive sediment trap at the bottom
end of the restored reach to retain the bed load and part of the suspended sediment which will be
transported downstream as a result of excavation.
Redevelopment of the catchment
Until now there have been only a few cases where more holistic restoration projects have been
possible, involving redevelopment of the whole catchment. Holistic schemes are ideal for river
restoration, because they allow multiple objectives to be fulfilled simultaneously. However, they
may be hard to realise in practice because of the many interests involved. In two catchment areas in
the County of South Jutland the essential elements of holistic redevelopment of catchment areas
have been fulfilled. These catchment areas are the River Torning (catchment area of 105 km2) and
the River Brede (catchment area of 465 km2).
In both schemes the prime objective of the work has been to recreate better ecological conditions,
particularly by reducing sand transport and raising water levels in the stream itself and adjacent
meadows.
Improvements in water quality have been achieved by:
- recreation of wet stream-side meadows which, research shows, may reduce nitrogen leaching by
an average of 400-600 kg per hectare per year (Danish Environmental Protection Agency, 1995)
- investment in improved sewage treatment
- reduction in nutrient-pollution from farmland by policy constraints, for example, specifying that
extensive areas of fields must remain green in the winter season
- linking allocation of EU farming subsidies to the protection of surface and groundwater. For
example, grants which encourage low-intensity cultivation on land adjacent to streams and lakes,
and subsidies for reducing fertiliser use in nitrate-sensitive areas
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Case studies
Thus, by a combination of planning policies, allocation of subsidies, modification of physical
structure and water quality improvements, both stream channels and broader catchment areas have
been improved. Changes in management practices have enhanced this process.
General recommendations for catchment restoration schemes are that:
1. Restoration projects should try to include the whole stream or river valley wherever possible.
2. Schemes should assess existing habitats which may be affected by the restoration scheme and
ensure that those of value are adequately protected.
3. Restorations should try to recreate dimensions and discharge capacities to secure a hydrological
contact between the stream and its valley.
4. In order to design appropriate restoration schemes it is important that existing information about
the river valley is obtained and used, e.g. planform of the old stream course, existing stream
dimensions and conditions (slope, discharge, water level and existing infrastructure such as
pipes), must be obtained.
Documentation and evaluation
Some of the restoration projects undertaken in Denmark have been accompanied by intensive
monitoring programmes. The following section describes the lessons learnt from our experience to
date, with particular reference to the monitoring of the River Gels (1989-1994) described by
Kronvang et al. (1994). The effects on the macroinvertebrate community is described in Friberg et
al. (1994).
Recommendations on monitoring the effects of stream restoration
To get the best results from monitoring restoration schemes, it is essential that the monitoring
programme is planned very early in the project or even before!
Monitoring should include not only assessment of the restored reach itself, but also sections
upstream and downstream. The upstream section acts as a reference reach, which enables one to
establish and eliminate the effect of other factors which could be affecting the stream (such as
climate or the effects of routine river maintenance). The downstream reach enables one to assess
the possible detrimental effects of higher sediment or nutrient release resulting from the restoration
work.
To provide a good baseline it is also important that monitoring of significant variables (including
sediment and nutrient transport, hydrology and ecology) starts at least one year, and preferably two
years, before the start of restoration work on the ground. Monitoring should also continue for as
long as possible after restoration.
Other recommendations are:
1. It is important that sediment mobilisation, transport and retention are monitored because they
have significant effects on phosphorus transport and on the ecological quality of the restored and
downstream reaches.
2. For studies of mass balance it is important that monitoring samples should be taken
simultaneously at upstream and downstream stations.
3. Monitoring should include measuring changes in groundwater levels/drainage in the riparian
zones by, for example, a series of dip-well transects.
4. Ecological monitoring must use standardised methods and ensure that seasonal changes are
assessed. The minimum requirement is usually two samples (spring and autumn).
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Case studies
Figure 1. Model for the sustainable restitution of a catchment.
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Case studies
Conclusion
Streams and rivers, like the landscape as a whole, are constantly changing. The forces of nature
have an impact but today the most significant influence on nature comes from humans. People have
changed from being a part of nature, to becoming the manager of nature. This has brought us many
benefits but also many problems.
In Denmark, the detrimental effects of river channelisation, dredging and weed-cutting have been
so obvious that, for more than a decade, Danish river authorities have worked to restore rivers and
change management practices. Some of the methods and practices now used have developed from
the results of research projects, others are really only applied common sense. The central
philosophy is simple: if it is harmful to wildlife to destroy stream biotopes, re-establishing them
should be expected to be beneficial.
It is not possible for humans to restore the landscape to its original natural state. Once disturbed or
destroyed habitats can never be completely recreated. It is, however, possible to rehabilitate
features and habitats in a way that brings conservation benefits: a restored river with diversity of
habitats is better than a channelised stream with little diversity. It is better still to protect habitats of
existing value than to have the difficulties and expense of attempting to recreate them once
destroyed. So as much effort as possible should go to securing and protecting undisturbed streams
and riparian zones. The lesson from Denmark and other countries is that the requirements of
,,agricultural and economic development" are no longer sufficient excuses for a modern society to
disturb or damage its streams and wetlands.
It needs to be stated that, quantitatively, the restoration efforts in Denmark have so far contributed
little to the general improvement of the environment. However, restoration projects are valuable for
creating public interest in the environmental quality of streams. Moreover, even though the total
length of stream channel physically restored may seem insignificant, other restoration measures
such as removing or rebuilding obstacles for faunal passage, can affect species movement along
whole streams and have a more significant impact (Iversen et al. 1993).
At the beginning of the stream restoration era 15 years ago we were happy just to introduce a
single-structure restoration feature into a stream. In subsequent years we have realised that some
single-structure methods have their negative sides. Structures such as artificial overhanging banks
constructed with planks have successfully provided cover for fish but they are not a natural part of
the stream or landscape. In combination, such features can change the river's sports fishery into a
kind of ,,put-and-take". This may be acceptable in specifically designed man-made habitats such as
former gravel pits, but it is certainly not acceptable in natural streams.
Some of the projects from South Jutland described in this chapter have been very successful in
achieving multiple objectives. The results from the River Brede and the River Torning in particular
show that, with effort, it is possible to bring nature conservation and ecosystem benefits across
whole catchments. To do this the disparate interests along the whole of the stream must be
considered. Normally it is not possible to meet all needs and demands at the same time. Society has
to choose its priorities. This choice must be done on a democratic basis which considers all
interests, but at the same time, it is essential that the choice made ensures a sustainable future for
our rivers.
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Case studies
5.3 Case study: Large-scale Restoration of Species-rich Meadows (Morava River,
Slovakia)
Ján âHIIHU0LUNDýLHUQD9LHUD6WDQRYi5DVWLVODY/DViN'REURPLO*DOYiQHN
Introduction
The development of agriculture since the 1940's has caused substantial damage to natural
environments. During the socialist period, a high number of subsidies for ploughing and
intensification of grasslands destroyed several species rich meadows throughout Slovakia's
mountain and lowland areas. Traditional private land use was almost destroyed and replaced by
co-operatives and state farms. The use of hybrid seed mixtures, over-fertilisation and intensive
grazing resulted in habitat degradation and destruction. As a result of such fierce cultivation, the
biodiversity value was strongly diminished, some vegetation types almost disappeared and
many plant and animal species have become rare and endangered. Historically, there have been
substantial losses throughout Slovakia, especially in the area of wet grasslands. Extensive
floodplain meadows existed throughout the southern parts of Slovakia, in the floodplains of
bigger riversOLNH'DQXEH0RUDYD,SH
/DWRUL.DDQGORZODQGVH.WLRQVRI+URQDQG%RGURJ
rivers (5XåLþNRYi 1994). Floodplain meadows of alliance Cnidion venosi are disappearing
mainly due to regulation of watercourses in lowlands; except the Morava River, the last
rePQDQWV.DQEHIRXQGDW/DWRUL.DDQG,SH
ULYHUVLQ6ORYDNLD
River regulation and dike building were the principal causes of grassland loss outside the
Morava floodplain area. In the floodplain area 493 ha of meadows was ploughed during
socialism and former floodplain meadows were changed to arable land and used for intensive
farming. The ploughing was concentrated on the middle section of what is now the Ramsar site,
and the arable land was regularly fertilised with herbicides. Some fields are still active, but
most fields have been abandoned for a few years and are now under invasion from weed and
alien species, especially Aster novi-belgii agg. Intensive use of chemicals has caused an increase
of pollution in the Morava River and a decrease of species richness. These fields have low
biodiversity and have become a barrier for nesting and migrating bird species. For example, the
occurrence of Corncrakes was not registered in that section of the river.
Presently, meadows and arable land in the Morava River floodplain are owned either by
private owners or by the Slovak State land fund. Farmers having the statute of co-operative of
stakeholders or private company can rent the land, but ownership relationships are modified
often because the re-privatisation process has yet to be completed.
There are a variety of methods available for the reinstatement of grassland vegetation, ranging
from the wait-and-see approach of natural regeneration, to the use of commercially or locally
produced seed, or turf translocation (Manchester et al. 1999). In the Austrian part of Morava-
Dyje floodplain, a regional seed mixture was prepared on special multiplication fields in order
to gain sufficient amount of seeds for the restoration of 74 ha of meadows (Wurzer 1999). The
arable land was transformed and is managed as grassland.
Considerable experience has been gained by testing two restoration methods in experimental
plots: sowing of native seeds and turf transplantation. Based on the results from the small-
scale experiment and from detailed mapping, in 1998 DAPHNE, in co-operation with local
farmers, started big scale restoration on 140 ha. The area for restoration was selected
according to the field mapping results and negotiations with farmers. The experiences and
recommendations of farmers were considered during the preparation and implementation
phase. Phare Programme funded preparation and implementation of restoration plan.
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Case studies
Concrete steps leading to restoration
Mapping and elaboration of restoration plan
During 1997 and 1998, extensive floodplain mapping was conducted to identify arable land
and abandoned fields in different stages of succession. The total number of mapped polygons
was 97 with an area of 493 ha. Each polygon is supported by list of species with estimation of
dominance (1 - rare, 2 - <50 %, 3 - >50 %). After inputting the data into GIS, the second step
was to develop classification criteria for the mapped polygons. All plots were classified into
three classes and six subclasses according the following criteria:
1. Succession - the rate of occurrence of dominant meadow and ruderal species with value 3
was evaluated
1.1. Arable
soil
1.2. Initial - minimally two weed species had value three and all meadow species were
less than three
1.3. Medium- maximally one weed species had value three or all meadow species were
less than three
1.4. Advanced
minimally one meadow species had value three or three meadow species
had two
2. Weed infestation - the dominance of invasive plant Aster novi-belgii agg. was the criterion.
Abandoned fields in the floodplain area were under heavy infestation from Aster novi-
belgii agg. It is an ornamental herbaceous perennial native to the eastern United States and
Canada (Jelitto et al. 1985). Since the 1960's, the species has spread throughout the
alluvium of the Morava and Danube rivers, and at present it is abundant, common to mass
VSUHDGDQGEHORQJVWRWKHPRVWDJJUHVVLYHLQYDGHUVQHRLQGLJHQRSK\WHV8KHUþtNRYi
According to its ecological requirements, it is strongly nitrophylous, heliophytic
hemicryptophyt demanding soil humidity and it is indicator of floods (Ellenberg et. al.
1992). It is strong competitor with k-strategy, which found excellent conditions in
abandoned fields with high amounts of nutrients and lack of management.
2.1. Heavy - Aster novi-belgii agg. had value three and grass species were less than two
2.2. Medium- Aster novi-belgii agg. had value three and minimally two grass species
were more than one
3. Depressions - were identified according to microrelief and occurrence of native
hygrophilous species
3.1. Minimally one hygrophilous species had three or bare bottom habitat was present
Description of restoration measures
1. Restoration
scheme was proposed for the arable land, initial succession stages and for the
polygons with heavy infestation of Aster novi-belgii agg.
1st phase
In spring and summer
·
Selecting of source plots for seed collection from suitable ecological conditions in the
floodplain. Two different sites representing moist meadows of alliance Cnidion were
selected.
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Case studies
·
Harvesting of ripe seeds in two periods according to phenological phases of target
species. The first focused on grass and sedge species and later on herbs. The exact date
is specified according to phenological monitoring of source meadows.
·
Processing of seed mixture drying, cleaning and preparation for transport.
2nd phase
In autumn or spring
·
Seedbed preparation ploughing and harrowing.
·
Distribution of collected seed mixture together with nurse crop on the surface and
rolling (oat is used to established the vegetation cover quickly and to block invasion of
weeds).
·
Creation of "islands of high diversity" by transfer of turf sections from good quality
meadows. The turfs, 0.5 m wide, several metres long and 0.1 m thick, were ploughed
from the species rich meadows. Then the turfs were placed on small open trailers and
were cut into small pieces, 10 by 10-cm. The island is planted with size 4 by 2 m (from
1 m2 chopped turfs). Turfs were spread out over eight times the area of ground they had
previously occupied and approximately one island is created per one hectare.
3rd phase
·
In spring or in summer (according to time of sowing) the biomass is removed.
·
The frequency of mowing depends on the extent of weed invasion.
·
In the case of low effectivity, seed germination follows restricted additional input of
meadow seeds.
·
Monitoring plots are established and the restored area is monitored regularly.
4th phase
The area is mowed and biomass is removed at least twice a year. In exceptional cases, for
instance heavy weed invasion, it is necessary to re-seed some plots.
2. Special mowing scheme is proposed for areas where native grassland species are present
and where there is no strong infestation of Aster novi-belgii agg.
·
The frequency of mowing depends on the extent of weed invasion. Mown vegetation
should be removed after mowing.
·
In exceptional cases sowing some plots is realised.
·
Entire restored area is regularly monitored.
3. Mowing
traditional mowing frequency (twice a year) is recommended in depressions
where there is good potential for restoration because of the presence of native hygrophilous
species.
Evaluation of area according to classification and proposed restoration measures
The total mapped area identified as arable and abandoned land is 493 ha. 273.75 ha has been
proposed to be restored by restoration scheme, 185 ha by special mowing scheme and 34 ha in
depressions will be regularly mowed. The most affected is the river floodplain's middle
section.
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Case studies
Implementation of restoration plan
Public participation
In order for management or restoration plans to be successfully implemented, it is necessary
to co-operate with stakeholders, particularly, farmers and local authorities. It is important to
remember that local people are physically and emotionally connected with nature and their
comments, recommendations and needs have to be taken into account when developing
restoration plans. By emphasising farmers' involvement in restoration, there is a shift away
from the "top down" activity that is so often imposed on local people. To create a working
environment that will yield success, it is critical to learn to communicate in a style and
language that will be effective with local people.
In 1995 a public opinion poll focused on determining local people's attitude toward the
floodplain area. It was indicated that most people considered the area to be valuable and that
they realise the importance of conserving the natural resources in terms of economic
development. However, it was also concluded that many people have a lack of information
about the environmental value of the area. DAPHNE initiated "Meadows for People", an
information campaign aimed to increase the public's knowledge about the Morava River
floodplain meadows. Lectures were organised for the public and brochures were distributed.
In 1996, our awareness activities continued with the local and national campaign "Wetlands
for Life". The aim was to explain the function and importance of wetlands and to inform
people about ongoing activities and trends.
All farmers and mayors working in the area were contacted in 1995 and available
environmental and agriculture data were collected to help define the possible problems and
advantages of the restoration plan. Through personal meetings and conferences, a platform
has been provided for discussion and exchange of experiences on ecological agriculture and
many agri-environmental topics.
After including farmers into the preparation stage of the Morava River floodplain's
restoration plan, communication with farmers has positively developed. Farmers have been
regularly consulted, their recommendations considered and their concerns such as the area
proposed for transformation, restoration methods used and financial conditions were
addressed. The negotiation process resulted into the invitation of five farmers for closer co-
operation and finally three of them were actively participating in seed collection from species
rich meadows and arable land transformation. The following criteria were considered during
the selection process:
· Land was identified as either being restorable or being seed collectable.
· Professional and technical experiences either in arable land transformation or in seed
collection.
· To ensure technical equipment of appropriate standard.
· Flexible and dynamic approach in problems solving.
Collection of seed material
Since the restoration method uses original seeds from floodplain meadows, the large-scale
restoration requires an efficient method for seed collection. Identifying resource meadows in
the Morava River floodplain and determining methodology for collecting and storing seeds
were a result of consultations with local farmers and adapting to their technical possibilities
(the seed collection was done by private farm AGROVYS s r. o. from Vysoka pri Morave).
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Case studies
The seeds were collected according to ripening of dominant grass and herb species. The best
time for grass species is early June. A harvester cultivated meadows and then the seed mixture
was cleaned for it to be used by the sowing machine. The seed mixture was dried out on warm
wind and then sieved for further purification.
The sieve that was used for purification was one-cm²; however, the one-cm² sieve was still
too big for the seeding machine and thus, the seed mixture was distributed with a fertiliser
broadcaster. Taking into account the possible losses during the cleaning process, it is more
effective to take dry primary seed mixture from the combine machine and to put it on
prepared arable land and roll it into the land.
Collection of seasonal herb seeds
The collection of herb seeds by the method described above is complicated because the size of
seeds, the high of herbs and the ripening time is more variable than grass species. The
following method is more effective:
·
Meadow is mowed in the time of ripening of needed herb species.
·
Hay is dried out and cut into small pieces.
·
Hay is distributed by fertiliser-spreading machine on prepared arable land and rolled into
land.
First phase of restoration was started by:
1. Collection of seeds by combine harvester with main focus on target grasses from 100 ha.
2. Use of hay-seeds with main focus on dicotyledonous plants (herbs) from 20 ha
The advantages of seed collection by the described method include low financial costs, no
special requirements for machinery, the presence of original gene pool and the use of natural
resources without making new fields for planting of grass or herb species.
Composition of seed mixture and effectiveness of harvesting
Collecting seeds by a harvester without special adaptation was tested for its effectiveness and
for comparison manual collection of seeds in four quadrates (1 m2) was completed. Seeds
were dried, weighed and counted. The result was a rough estimation of total yield per hectare
approximately 114.75 kg of seeds. This data became a basis for evaluating the effectiveness
of collection by harvester.
Ten samples were taken from the seed mixture after harvesting to evaluate the species
composition and effectiveness. The seeds were separated from the mixture and divided
according to quantity into six principal groups: (1) seeds of Alopecurus pratensis, (2) seeds of
Poa pratensis, (3) seeds of Elytrigia repens, (4) other grass seeds, (5) sedge seeds and (6)
herb seeds. Seeds were weighed and the number of seeds in the sample was estimated.
Although using a harvester to collect grass and sedge seeds was not the most efficient, am
ample number of seeds were still collected without any special adaptations and any additional
costs. This method yields approximately 20 kg of seeds from each hectare of species rich
meadows. The effectiveness of harvest for dominant species is as follows: Carex sp. div.
36,84 %, Alopecurus pratensis 15,47 %, Poa pratensis 12,48 % and Elytrigia repens 7,61 %
(Fig. 3). The analyses of pure seeds from harvested seed mixture showed the presence 75 %
of grass species, 17 % of sedges and 8 % of herbs (Fig. 2).
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Case studies
Physical restoration of 140 ha of arable soil
After considering mapping outputs, negotiation results and financial conditions, 140 ha were
identified to be transformed in the first phase of restoration Many factors influence the
success of transformation; for instance it is important to choose partners that have the
necessary experience and professional background. AGRA-M, a successful and economically
stable private farm, is managing 145 ha of arable land and 30 ha of meadows in the floodplain
area out of 3700 ha of its total agriculture land.
The soil quality is a significant factor and it is important to be aware of the area's history. The
proposed arable land has been located in the most effected part in the middle section of the
Morava River floodplain (see map). The area consisted of four main fields that were intensely
utilised by applying pesticides and fertilisers to grow silage corn. Two years before the start
of restoration work, an unofficial pre-agreement between farm owners and DAPHNE stated
that the use of intensive inputs in the floodplain area should be stopped.
Floodplains are dynamic ecosystems and restoration plans require careful preparation for a
suitable time framework. After reviewing flood frequency, weather conditions and seasonal
agricultural works, it was determined that transformation work commence in the beginning of
October 1998. Unfortunately, due to permanently wet soil, transformation work was
postponed to 1999 after the spring floods. Both spring and autumn sowing can be successful,
however, an autumn sowing must be carried out early enough to allow adequate preparing of
seedbed and seeding growth before the winter.
Some technical difficulties arose in seed planting. Specifically, since the non-homogenous
seed mixture combined with oat was unable to be spread by a seed machine, a fertiliser
broadcaster was used. The mixture was distributed on arable land and rolled into the soil two
times, and then the "islands of biodiversity" were established (one island - 4 by 2 m in size
per hectare) using the turfs from the nearest species rich meadows. In the same year the area
was mowed two times and biomass consisting of the nurse crop (oat) was used as forage for
cows.
Careful management by cutting is required to control competition from undesirable, ruderal
species at restored plots.
Non-sustainable forms of agriculture and poor management have led to the degradation of
ecological integrity in floodplain. The conversion of arable land back to managed wet
meadow systems will create a purification system that decreases soil erosion and decreases
the inputs of organic nutrients into the ground and the surface water. The conversion of land
will also increase the species richness of the area and improve the habitat for many species of
rare plant and animal species.
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NGOs' Communication Activities
5 NGOs' Communication Activities in the Danube River Basin
Stanislava Boshnakova with support Milena Dimitrova and Petko Kovatchev
5.1 Components and Objectives of the Presentation
Definition of the goals of the presentation:
The definition of the workshop's objectives is recommended by Holger Nauheimer in
"Quality Guidelines for training and Consultation Workshops" under DRP. In this sense we
recommend definition of presentation's goals.
The objective of this presentation is to enable NGOs from the Danube River Basin to manage
and implement successful communication activities in order to establish cooperation with
local stakeholders, to provide access to information to the general public, and to stimulate
sustainable use of the natural ecosystems in the region.
Components of the presentation:
The presentation consists of 8 elements and is divided in two parts. Both components have
theoretical and practical module. The theoretical module of the first part concentrates over
basic information-related activities: environmental information, public participation and
communication activities. The exercise trains the participants in preparation of media release.
The theoretical module of the second part of the presentation concentrates over strategic
planing, in particular planing of communication activities. The participants are stimulated to
master planing through application of the proposed model of planing through preparation of
organized communication activity - information campaign.
Part 1- 45 minutes
1. General concepts, concerning information flow
2. Access to environmental information: legislation and practical approaches
3. Participation in decision-making on local level
4. Communication activities of E-NGOs: publications, workshops, open door activities
5. Group
dynamics
preparation of news-release about the current event
Part 2 45 minutes
6. NGO communication strategy
7. Environmental information, available on the Internet each DEF representative should
schoose info to be included in the list
8. Group
dynamics planning of information campaign (non-compulsory)
Useful tips, concerning slide-show presentation by Jim Stevenson
· Aim to use about two slides a minute
· For a 25 minute talk you should have 30 to 50 slides
· Try not to mix slides in portrait (vertical) format with slides in landscape (horizontal)
format
· Leave your contacts and collect contacts of the participants to make long-term evaluation
of the training
Giving the talk
· Switch on the projector but leave the lights on
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NGOs' Communication Activities
· Stand at the side of the screen, face the audience
· Introduce yourself with the lights on
· Explain who are you, what you do and what your message is
· Keep your face turned to the public while you talk
· Encourage feedback - tell the workshop participants when they can raise questions
· Repeat or enlarge explanations about particular part of the presentation if necessary
5.2 General Concepts Concerning Information Flow
In order to make the presentation more user friendly it is necessary to present few concepts
in the very beginning.
Public Relations establishment of cooperation of mutual interest between the organization
and its target audience. It is needed for both sides to define their communication needs and
develop further activities.
Integrated NGO Communications or just Communications management of the information
flow, concerning the activities of the organization towards its audience. It is a part of the
organizations' strategy, which refers to exchange of information and information logistics.
Public Participation Principle involvement of the civil society in the governmental
decision-making and decision-implementation (local government, national government,
international institutions). NGOs play an important role in offering a public voice to the
public debate on policy issues and helping to create consensus between governments,
institutions and civil society.
Democratic Decision Making - to ensure relevant representation of all stakeholders and
groups who will be affected by the implementation of the decision in the process of making of
the decision. It provides fair involvement and guarantees optimal relevance of the decisions to
the needs and interests of all segments and groups of interests of the civil society.
Access to environmental information: legislation and practical approaches
This part of the presentation is aimed at preparation of the participants for further public
participation activities.
National legislation: Point out the relevant national legislation for your country
International conventions, signed by your country (ex Aarhus Convention), which provide
the legal frame to access to environmental information.
Reccomendation to the workshop participants: Recommend to the workshop participants to
find out all relevant local regulations in the municipality/ties their NGO operates in and this
way to acquire the information needed and to improve their public participation.
93
NGOs' Communication Activities
Types of public participation:
· Informing people participate by being informed what has been decided or has already
happened
· Consultation People participate by being consulted or answering questions
· Implementing people participate to meet the objectives decided by the selected majority
(government, parliament)
· Shared decisions people participate in development of an action plan
· Self determination when people want to change decisions plans, policies, etc.
Problems in applying public participation in CEE
· There is often lack of public participation in the early stages of the decision-making
process
· Not all relevant information is provided to the public
· Comments of the public or NGOs are not as seriously taken into account as the comments
of governmental officials
· Few CEE countries have legal reguirements for involving the public
· There is no clear definition about precisely who `the public' is
· Most of the countries do not consider draft legislation subject to public disclosure
· There is no obligation to take the comments from the public seriously, and to inform the
public about the extent to which their comments were taken into account
Participation in decision-making on local level
This part of the presentation is aimed at enhancing workshop participants participation in the
sub-basin region of Danube River where they operate in.
NGOs have a `watch-dog role", they can give expertise, to voice the public opinion or
empower public responses to governmental actions.
Watch-dog activities towards institutions E-NGOs should ensure that :
· The institutions implement and enforce the environmental lows;
· The institutions bring forward new environmental legislation;
· The integration of environment in other policies is ensured;
· Sustainable development policies are actively pursued;
· The national government plays relevant role in the world affairs;
· The citizens are able to play a full part in reducing the damage to Earth's ecosystems.
94
NGOs' Communication Activities
E-NGOs activities:
· Representing and bringing the concerns of the citizens to decision-makers
· Integrating and strengthening environmental content across all sectors
· Promoting and monitoring implementation of EU law in the candidate-countries, in
particular of the Water Framework Directive in the Danube river Basin
· Providing political, legal and technical expertise
· Awareness-raising among the citizens and the decision-makers on environmental
problems
· Development of public opinion and strengthening of the civil society
· Proposing new legislation or regional regulations
· Exchanging information with other organizations
· Training in different areas among other public groups
5.3 Communication Activities of E-NGOs
The module is aimed at improvement of communication activities of the participating NGOs
through implementation of some "key-tricks", recommended by PR experts worldwide. It is
expected the trainees to enlarge the number of communication techniques in their everyday
work and to improve their quality as well.
Communication is a two-way process. The effective message should be relevant to the public
interests and knowledge. Always search for feedback.
Useful tips:
· Adapt the information to the public needs, give more details which could be useful for
your target audience (ex. details concerning the health or safety of the public, economic
profits/efficiency of environmental activities)
· Use a simple language, explain all abbreviations and quote more than one source of
information (this makes info look more reliable)
· Give some figure and data, but not too much
· Supply your arguments with practical examples
· Use visuals tables, pictures, maps, video. Supply your NGO with a relevant photo and
videoarchieve
· Implement inquiries among general public or selected group of people (ex. journalists,
teachers, accademic professionals, children, etc.) in order to supply a feedback to your
activities
· Provide contacts -always put your logo, name of NGO, webpage, mailing contacts on a
visible place
95
NGOs' Communication Activities
Indirect communication
Communication, which is established through an information tool (ex. handbook, leaflet,
poster) or channel (ex. webpage, mass media, internal or professional media). This approach
does not include face-to-face contact to the public. It excludes instant feedback.
Direct communication
Face-to-face communication to the public. This approach includes instant feedback. If the
person/s who present your NGO have good communication skills, it could be more effective
than the indirect method. If the person/s who present your NGO lack communication skills or
experience, this method might not be as effective as you expect it to be.
Indirect communication tools/channels:
· Printed materials publications (handbooks, leaflets, magazines), posters, stickers, news-
releases, etc.
· Other tools videofilms, CDs, CD-ROM, Multimedia, etc.
· Information channels - webpages, mass media, internal or professional media
Internal tools/channels information flow could be ruled. This type of communication
offers access to limited number of people.
External tools/channels - information flow could not be controlled. This type of
communication offers access to larger number of people than the previous one. The
authority of the channel is transfered to the information sourse (ex. If a popular TV
show praices your NGO, its oppinion is taken into account by the viewers.).
Direct communication tools/methods
· Presentations may include slide shows, videofilms, competitions, games
· Workshops/trainings
· Receptions
· Open door activities (expeditions, happenings, concerts, etc.)
Useful tips:
· In order to influence more effectively your audience (so called `targeting'), you should
combine both communication methods (indirect and direct)
· Plan your activitie according to the problems you want to solve, the audience you have to
reach (it is usually the core 20% of the people who will be influenced by your activities)
and last but not least - the available resourses: human, finantial, time (hint
communication strategy frame to be presented at the second part of the presentation)
96
NGOs' Communication Activities
Group dynamics preparation of news-release about the current event
25 minutes exercise
The task: Divide the workshop participants in 4 groups of 4-6 people. Give 15 minutes to each
group to prepare news release about the current event (not more than 20 lines long) . Read the
releases together and ask the other participants to comment on the performance of their
colleagues. Add supplementary comments if necessary. Ask them to stick to the scheme of
news release structure given by you, check for the technical details (structure) and language
(style). After the completion of the task make a break.
Structure of news-release
· Organization's logo, name and contacts in the top
· Short headline (do not try to be pathetic most journalists are skeptical)
· Inverted pyramid structure the most important in the first paragraph
· Your release should answer to the "who, what, where, when, why" the five obligatory
questions for a media report
· List your organization's name several times
· Names, titles, organizations spelled correctly and all abbreviations explained
· Photo opportunities listed
· Contact person's name and contacts (phone, e-mail)in the end
· Reccomended length : 1 or 1,5 pages
NGO communication strategy
This module is aimed at improvement of efectiveness of communication activities through
strategic planing of each step of them. The model is universal and could be also applied at
project planing and implementation cycle as well.
Public relations are part of the managerial process. NGOs are public structures, build on the
democratic principle of transperanncy and in this sense communications should be integrated
in each activity of the nongovernmental organization.
· Problem's deffinition what do we want to do?
Collect and analyse as much information as possible about the the current state of the
environmental issue/problem you want to solve. Needs accessment.
· Planning of the NGO's activities what to do?
Plan your activities according to the goals you want to fulfill and the audience you want to
reach. Agenda setting - set a single (or multiple) activities for all objective/s, the order of their
completion, the time necessary for their implementation and the person/s in charge of the
activities. Set all communication methods you are going to use. Provide necessary resourses
financial, human, technical for the completion of tasks.
97
NGOs' Communication Activities
Communication what, where and when are we going to do?
Implementation of the planned activities according to the time-schedule, the available budget
and the involved personnell. Report and record (videotape or photograph) all your events,
make a media-archieve, list contacts of participants, contributors, volunteers, journalists.
Implement feed-back activities (inquiries, interviews). If a method/activity you have planned
appears to be unsuccessful, replace it with something else or repeat the activity with particular
changes.
· Key NGO communication activities to be implemented
Indirect communication activities
Correspondence
Publications
Media events
Direct communication activities
Workshops and meetings
Receptions
Open door activities
· Key groups to be reached on local level:
Local authorities and national government
Local and national mass media
Unformal leaders (businessmen, artists, intellectuals)
Other NGOs
Nature lovers
· Evaluation of the program what are we doing and what have we done?
Analyse your reports, archieve or any other materials to evaluate your program and develop
furher activities. Implement not only final, but also mid-term evaluations, staff meetings or
even meeting with external communication/strategic planning experts (if you can afford it).
Group dynamics planing of information campaign
30 minutes exercise
The task: Again divide the workshop participants in 4 groups of 4-6 people. Give 15 minutes
to each group to prepare plan of an information campaign about Danube related issues.
Analyze the results using the same method as in the first exercise. Ask them to stick to the
given scheme of strategic planing. This exercise could be useful for development and
synchronization of further activities under DRP and REC's for CEE grants program.
98
NGOs' Communication Activities
Evaluation of the presentation perfomance and effectiveness
Attainment Indicators:
Short term indicators (to be measured during the workshop)
· Evaluation sheets prepare evaluation sheets on the flipcahrt and ask the participants to
mark with X (using markers) their impression in the appropriate box during the break
while trainers are not watching them. You can use this method for the other presentations
during the workshop. If a presentation's module is evaluated badly, discuss this with the
workshop participants and try to improve the results.
Activity:
-
.
/
NGO's
communication
activities
General concepts,
concerning
XX
X
information flow
Access to environmental
XX
X
information: legislation
and practical approaches
Participation in
X
X
X
decision-making on
local level
- - excellent
. - good, but not clear enough
/ - bad
Long term indicators (to be measured within 6 months after the workshop):
· Participants have developed further public participation activities
· Participants have improved their participation in decision-making in the sub-basin region
of Danube River where they operate in
· Participants have improved their communication activities and enlarged the number of
communication techniques in their everyday work and improved their quality as well
· Participants have improved the efectiveness of their communication activities through
strategic planing and raised funds for fuurther communication activities
99
NGOs' Communication Activities
Information sources
The presentation is based on information from the following sources:
1)Cutlip Scott, Center Allen, Broom Glen. Effective Public relations
2) Introducing European Environmental NGOs. Their role and importance in European
decision-making. Edition of EEB (www.eeb.org)
3) Nauheimer Holger. Quality Guidelines for training and Consultation Workshops
(www.icpdr.org)
4) Public Access to Environmental Information and Data. Edition of Mulieucontact Oost
Europa (available at REC for CEE offices)
5) Public Participation, NGOs and the Water Frameworks Directive in CEE. Edition of WWF
(www.panda.org)
6) Public participation in practice. Edition of REC for CEIE (available at REC for CEE
offices)
7) Stevenson, Jim. Presenting a Slide Talk. Edition of Birdlife Seashells (Not available on the
web site. For more information contact BirdLife international through: www.birdlife.org)
8) WWF's preliminary comments on Public Participation in the Context of the Water
Frameworks Directive and Integrated River Basin Management (www.panda.org)
9) Public Participation in Environmental Decision Making. Edition of Black Sea NGO
Network (only in Bulgarian)
For additional information search the given web sites of contact the sources of information.
Materials to be distributed among the participants
1. News release instructions
2. Strategic planing scheme
3. Useful online sources of environmental information (to be added additionaly by each
NFP)
4. Hardcopy of the prezentation (3 slides on page)
100
NGOs' Communication Activities
Structure of news-release
· Organization's logo, name and contacts in the top
· Short headline (do not try to be pathetic most journalists are skeptical)
· Inverted pyramid structure the most important in the first paragraph
· Your release should answer to the "who, what, where, when, why" the five obligatory
questions for a media report
· List your organization's name several times
· Names, titles, organizations spelled correctly and all abbreviations explained
· Photo opportunities listed
· Contact person's name and contacts (phone, e-mail)in the end
· Reccomended length : 1 or 1,5 pages
5.4 NGO Communication Strategy
· Problem's deffinition what do we want to do?
Collect and analyse as much information as possible about the the current state of the
environmental issue/problem you want to solve. Needs accessment.
· Planning of the NGO's activities what to do?
Plan your activities according to the goals you want to fulfill and the audience you want to
reach. Agenda setting - set a single (or multiple) activities for all objective/s, the order of their
completion, the time necessary for their implementation and the person/s in charge of the
activities. Set all communication methods you are going to use. Provide necessary resourses
finantial, human, technical for the completion of tasks.
Communication what, where and when are we going to do?
Implementation of the planned activities according to the time-schedule, the abailable budget
and the involved personnell. Report and record (videotape or photograph) all your events,
make a media-archieve, list contacts of participants, contributors, volunteers, journalists.
Implement feed-back activities (inquiries, interviews). If a method/activity you have planned
appears to be unsuccessful, replace it with something else or repeat the activity with particular
changes.
· Key NGO communication activities to be implemented
Indirect communication activities
Correspondence
Publications
Media events
101
NGOs' Communication Activities
Direct communication activities
Workshops and meetings
Receptions
Open door activities
· Key groups to be reached on local level:
Local authorities and national government
Local and national mass media
Unformal leaders (businessmen, artists, intellectuals)
Other NGOs
Nature lovers
· Evaluation of the program what are we doing and what have we done?
Analyse your reports, archieve or any other materials to evaluate your program and develop
furher activities. Implement not only final, but also mid-term evaluations, staff meetings or
even meeting with external communication/strategic planning experts (if you can afford it).
102
References
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Retention in Wetlands and Their Use for Wastewater Treatment. Ecology and Use of Wetlands. Prague &
BotanicaO ,QVWLWXWH 7ÝHER
Daly, H. E. 1998. The Return of Lauderdale's Paradox. Ecological Economics 25: 21-23.
'ULO 0 +XWQDQ 0 7HFKQRORJLFNê SURMHNW RFKUDQ\ åLYRWQpKR SURVWUHGLD - DVý 7HFKQROyJLD YRG\
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Folmer, H., Gnabel, H. L. & Opschoor, H. (eds.) 1995. Principles of Environmental and Resource Economics. A
Guide to for Students and Decision-Makers. Edward Elgar, Aldershot / Brookfield.
Frederiksen, B.S. 1996. An Environmental Decision Support Framework for Re-Establishment - How to Include
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Fustec, E., Mariotti, A., Grillo, X. & Sajus, J. 1991. Nitrate removal by denitrification in alluvial ground water:
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Environmental and Resource Economics 4: 55-74.
Haycock, N. E., Pinay, G. & Walker, Ch. 1993. Nitrogen retention in river corridors: European perspective.
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SRGPLHQNDFK WUDQVIRUPXM~FHM VD HNRQRPLN\ 6ORYHQVNHM UHSXEOLN\ 'L]HUWDþQi SUiFD 3URJQRVWLFNê ~VWDY 6$9
Bratislava.
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Kowalik, P. & Obarska-Pempkowiak, H. 1996. Nutrient removal from wastewater in wetlands covered by reed
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Kusler, J. A. et Kentula, M. E. (eds.), 1990: Wetland Creation and Restoration. The Status of the Science.
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Lhotská, M., Krippelová, T. HW &LJiQRYi . $NR VD UR]PQRåXM~ D UR]ãLUXM~ UDVWOLQ\ %UDWLVODYD
MacDonald, H.F., Bergstrom, J.C. & Houston, J., E. 1998. A Proposed Methodology for Measuring Incremental
Environmental Benefits From Using Constructed Wetlands To Control Agricultural Non-point Sources
Pollution. Journal of Environmental Management 54: 259-267.
0LFKDONR - HW DO *HRERWDQLFNi PDSD ý665 Bratislava.
Munda, G. 1996. Cost-benefit Analysis in Integrated Environmental Assesment: some methodological issues
Ecological Economics 19: 157-168.
Nadácia DAPHNE, 1995: Nivou Moravy. Bratislava.
Pearce, D. & Moran, D. 1994. The Economic Value of Biodiversity. IUCN, Earthscan, London.
Perrings, C. 1995. Economic Values of Biodiversity. In: Perrings, C. (ed.). Global Biodiversity Assessment,
UNEP, pp. 823-915. University Press, Cambridge.
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Economics 29: 47-52.
5XåLþNRYi + +DODGD -HGOLþND / .DOLYRGRYi ( HW DO %LRWRS\ 6ORYHQVND - SUtUXþND N PDSRYDQLX D
katalóg biotopov. Bratislava.
5\FKQRYVNi 0 (NRV\VWpPRYp IXQNFH QLYQtFK OXN ,Q 3tURGD VERUQtN SUDFt ] RFKUDQ\ StURG\ 3UDKD
SeGOiþHN . HW DO ýHUYHQi NQLKD RKURåHQêFK D Y]iFQêFK GUXKu URVWOLQ D åLYRþLFKu ý665 3UDKD
Seffer, J., Stanová, V., Viceníková, A., Zlínska, J. & Tirinda, A. 1995. Management and Restoration of
Meadows in The Morava floodplain. Final Report. DAPHNE - Centre for Applied Ecology, Bratislava.
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Turner, K., Pearce, D. & Bateman, I. 1994. Environmental Economics. An Elementary Introduction. UK:
Harvester Wheatsheaf, 328 p.
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9\PD]DO - :DVWHZDWHU 7UHDWPHQW LQ &RQVWUXFWHG :HWODQGV 7ÝHER (QYL S
104
Quality Guidelines for Training and Consultation Workshops
UNDP/GEF Danube Regional Project
Annex I. Templates
105
Quality Guidelines for Training and Consultation Workshops
UNDP/GEF Danube Regional Project
Template 1: General Information and Workshop Objectives
Status: mandatory, to be submitted to DRP for endorsement of workshop
Intended workshop title
Choose any 4-letter/number acronym
Consulting (C) or Training Workshop
(T)?
Intended date of workshop
from to
Intended place of workshop
Name of organizer
What are the short term objectives of
the workshop? At the end of the
workshop, what will be achieved?
How will you measure the
achievement of the short term
objectives? Please specify at least one
milestone/indicator for each short
term objective.
What is the medium term objective?
What do you expect to happen after
the workshop completion?
When do you want to achieve your
in months
medium term objective?
What will be indicators for measuring
the medium term objectives (please
specify for each medium term
objective)? Please specify who
exactly is involved in the achievement
Who will be responsible for the
measurement of the indicators for
medium term objectives?
106
Quality Guidelines for Training and Consultation Workshops
UNDP/GEF Danube Regional Project
Template 2: The Workshop's Direct and Indirect Target Groups
Status: mandatory, to be submitted to DRP for endorsement of workshop
Workshop acronym
Who needs to be involved and why?
Who are the end beneficiaries of the
expected medium term outcome?
How big is the final target group (e.g.,
those who are supposed to agree to
something, to benefit, or to learn)?
If you can not invite the final target
group because of size, who are
potential mediators? On which base
will you choose them? Do they have
this mediating role already, or will it
be created through the workshop (e.g.
in the case of new trainers)?
If you invite mediators, what are the
institutional arrangements which
insure that they will execute their role
after the workshop (e.g., act as
multiplicators, facilitate decisions,
assure participation in planning
processes, act as trainers for the final
107
Quality Guidelines for Training and Consultation Workshops
UNDP/GEF Danube Regional Project
Template 3b: Methodology (Training Workshops)
Status: mandatory, to be submitted to DRP before the start of the workshop
This template might be filled together with the trainer(s)
Workshop acronym
Will the workshop be knowledge,
skill or behaviour oriented?
What assumptions do you have about
the knowledge level of the
participants? Did you test these
assumptions?
How much of the syllabus will be
(i) theoretical input
theoretical input
%
(ii) practical exercises
practical exercises
%
Which methods will you apply to
assure that the intended objectives
will be achieved?
How many trainers do you intend to
have for the workshop? If you have
more than one, will they have
different technical or methodological
know-how?
Will participants act as resource
108
Quality Guidelines for Training and Consultation Workshops
UNDP/GEF Danube Regional Project
Template 7b: Evaluation of the Workshop Training Workshop
(to be handed out to participants)
Please fill out and return to workshop organizer or trainer
Workshop title
Date of workshop
from to
How long before the workshop start did you receive the
weeks
With the invitation, did you receive the agenda and the
agenda
yes
no
objectives?
objectives
yes
no
Were the objectives spelled out at the beginning of the
yes
no
Did the workshop fully meet its predefined
yes
partly
no
If not, please tell us,
why.
Please score the following criteria with 5 being
5 4 3 2 1
the best and 1 being the lowest mark
very
Overall quality of the training
excellent
poor
very
How was the level of participation?
very high
low
very
not at
Were the training methods appropriate?
appropriat
all
What is the applicability of the training content very
not at all
to your working context?
applicable
applicabl
Which part of the
training content was
most important for
you?
Please give us some
recommendations of
what could be
improved next time
such a training
109
Quality Guidelines for Training and Consultation Workshops
UNDP/GEF Danube Regional Project
Template 8: Workshop report
Status: mandatory, to be filled by the organizer and submitted to DRP together with
participants' workshop evaluation
Workshop title
Workshop acronym
Date and Place of workshop
Date Place
Name and address of venue
Number of participants invited /
invited present
present
Did you have external moderators or
yes
no
trainers?
Please score the following criteria with 5 being
5 4 3 2 1
the best and 1 being the lowest mark
not at
Achievement of objectives
fully
all
very
Quality of moderators / trainers
excellent
poor
very
Quality of training venue
excellent
poor
Lessons Learned (1): What did you
like in particular about the workshop?
Lessons Learned (2): What needs to
be improved in the future?
110